Day, Night, and Shadows

Everyday we see the sun go up in the morning, and then it goes down at night. When the sun goes down, the moon goes up. While we are sleeping, the moon goes down, and the sun goes up. Both the sun and moon give off light, and this light can be used to make shadows. The simple and fun science of day and night helps us tell when it's time to wake up and go to school and when it's time to go to bed and sleep. Let's first make sure we understand each of the words well.

Day

Day or daytime is when we can see the sun. The sun rises over the line we see in the east. This line is called the horizon. The goes up and moves across the sky and ends up on the other side of the horizon line, called the west. The time when we can see the sun, or when the sun is moving from east to west is called daytime.

Night

Night or nighttime is when we cannot see the sun. Instead of the sun we can see the moon and stars, but we don't see these every night. Just like the sun, we see the moon come up from one side of the sky and move to the other side. The time when we can see the moon or starts is called nighttime.

(But I'm sure you already knew all that! Did you know, though that it's really the earth that moves?!)

The Moving Earth

Even though we can see the sun and moon move across the sky, they aren't really moving, it's the earth that moves! The earth spins or turns around by itself and as a result it faces different parts of it towards the sun as it spins. This turning around is what makes day and night. If you stand in front of a lamp, the light shines on your face. You can call this daytime. Now turn slowly towards your left and you will see that the light is fading away. When there is no more light on your face, you call this nighttime. So the light never moved, you did, and that's the same thing the earth does!

Shadows

A shadow is what forms when something gets in the way of light. The thing that gets in the way of the light makes a dark shape where the light should be shining on. When we make shadow puppets with our hands, we put our hands in front of the light in order to block some of the light to make the puppet.

We can use shadows to tell the time or to determine how bright it is outside. When it's very bright, our shadows are very dark. When it isn't too bright, our shadows are lighter. Depending on where the sun is, we will have a different looking shadow. It can look long or short, or lean towards one side. The science project in the project section shows us how this happens when day turns to night!

Everyday we see the sun go up in the morning, and then it goes down at night. When the sun goes down, the moon goes up. While we are sleeping, the moon goes down, and the sun goes up. Both the sun and moon give off light, and this light can be used to make shadows. The simple and fun science of day and night helps us tell when it's time to wake up and go to school and when it's time to go to bed and sleep. Let's first make sure we understand each of the words well.

Day

Day or daytime is when we can see the sun. The sun rises over the line we see in the east. This line is called the horizon. The goes up and moves across the sky and ends up on the other side of the horizon line, called the west. The time when we can see the sun, or when the sun is moving from east to west is called daytime.

Night

Night or nighttime is when we cannot see the sun. Instead of the sun we can see the moon and stars, but we don't see these every night. Just like the sun, we see the moon come up from one side of the sky and move to the other side. The time when we can see the moon or starts is called nighttime.

(But I'm sure you already knew all that! Did you know, though that it's really the earth that moves?!)

The Moving Earth

Even though we can see the sun and moon move across the sky, they aren't really moving, it's the earth that moves! The earth spins or turns around by itself and as a result it faces different parts of it towards the sun as it spins. This turning around is what makes day and night. If you stand in front of a lamp, the light shines on your face. You can call this daytime. Now turn slowly towards your left and you will see that the light is fading away. When there is no more light on your face, you call this nighttime. So the light never moved, you did, and that's the same thing the earth does!

Shadows

A shadow is what forms when something gets in the way of light. The thing that gets in the way of the light makes a dark shape where the light should be shining on. When we make shadow puppets with our hands, we put our hands in front of the light in order to block some of the light to make the puppet.

We can use shadows to tell the time or to determine how bright it is outside. When it's very bright, our shadows are very dark. When it isn't too bright, our shadows are lighter. Depending on where the sun is, we will have a different looking shadow. It can look long or short, or lean towards one side. The science project in the project section shows us how this happens when day turns to night!

Darwin, A View

As the principal of a Christian School within the independent sector, I am often contacted by the media. One of the issues that regularly crops up is their request for me to become involved in the ongoing debate about evolution and creation. Unsurprisingly, even Richard Dawkins spent time grilling us on our views for his documentary "The Root of All Evil". During the times when myself and the school are not sought out by the media, we rarely think about Darwin or evolution.

From what I know of Darwin he was a good family man, doing interesting research; however what is very important to me is what people really think about who they are. We are still in the realms of theory as to how and why. Today some people tend to be more dogmatic and totally convinced, as is Richard Dawkins, when maybe we ought not to be so proud of our certainties.

My opinion is if the Bible is correct, (and I believe it to be so) then our thoughts are the things that mould us and make us, as we think in our hearts so we are - Proverbs 23:7 - our thinking is that which generates the way we act. So, if we think that the universe is some mechanical process, then we tend to treat people like a machine; if we think that we are just an animal then, we tend to treat each other like animals.

It seems to me that Hitler believed that Darwin's view of how life worked was correct and much more than theory. From this belief he decided, "well then, let me speed up the process and create an evolutionary jump and make the master race." We know the results!

If, on the other hand, we believe that there is a mind behind our universe, and that we are created in the image of God then surely that thinking would encourage us to treat one another with dignity and respect. Richard Dawkins' argument with me on TV was that he was more honourable than me as he did not need a God to stop him from pillaging and raping; his implication being that I did! My problem with that argument is that one person cannot negate what is going on in the world; the great swathes of destruction and man's inhumanity to man. Our thinking that we can play God, and our devaluation of each other, is a daily fact whatever Mr. Dawkins may think.

So what do I think of Darwin? Interesting theories; but believing them to be totally correct without criticism and debate will lead to dangerous thought.

As the principal of a Christian School within the independent sector, I am often contacted by the media. One of the issues that regularly crops up is their request for me to become involved in the ongoing debate about evolution and creation. Unsurprisingly, even Richard Dawkins spent time grilling us on our views for his documentary "The Root of All Evil". During the times when myself and the school are not sought out by the media, we rarely think about Darwin or evolution.

From what I know of Darwin he was a good family man, doing interesting research; however what is very important to me is what people really think about who they are. We are still in the realms of theory as to how and why. Today some people tend to be more dogmatic and totally convinced, as is Richard Dawkins, when maybe we ought not to be so proud of our certainties.

My opinion is if the Bible is correct, (and I believe it to be so) then our thoughts are the things that mould us and make us, as we think in our hearts so we are - Proverbs 23:7 - our thinking is that which generates the way we act. So, if we think that the universe is some mechanical process, then we tend to treat people like a machine; if we think that we are just an animal then, we tend to treat each other like animals.

It seems to me that Hitler believed that Darwin's view of how life worked was correct and much more than theory. From this belief he decided, "well then, let me speed up the process and create an evolutionary jump and make the master race." We know the results!

If, on the other hand, we believe that there is a mind behind our universe, and that we are created in the image of God then surely that thinking would encourage us to treat one another with dignity and respect. Richard Dawkins' argument with me on TV was that he was more honourable than me as he did not need a God to stop him from pillaging and raping; his implication being that I did! My problem with that argument is that one person cannot negate what is going on in the world; the great swathes of destruction and man's inhumanity to man. Our thinking that we can play God, and our devaluation of each other, is a daily fact whatever Mr. Dawkins may think.

So what do I think of Darwin? Interesting theories; but believing them to be totally correct without criticism and debate will lead to dangerous thought.

Chemistry 101

Welcome to Chemistry 101, an introduction to Chemistry. Chemistry 101 will touch on the important topics of first year chemistry and beyond. These Chemistry 101 topics that will be discussed below are matter, atoms, molecules, states of matter, solutions, acids and bases, oxidation-reduction reactions, rates of reactions and equilibrium, thermochemistry and stoichiometry.

Chemistry 101 - Matter

Chemistry 101 begins with the introduction of matter, as chemistry is the study of matter. The atomic theory teaches that matter is made up of pure substances known as atoms and molecules. Atoms are single elemental particles, such as gold, silver and potassium. Molecules are chemical combinations of two or more atoms, such as water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Matter may also be composed of mixtures of substances, such as a glass of orange juice. A glass of juice is a mixture of many different atoms and compounds, which are NOT chemically combined. Because they are not chemically combined, they can be separated by physical means. For instance, water a pure substance, can be removed from orange juice, which is what juice manufacturers do to make concentrate.

Chemistry 101 - Atoms

Chemistry 101 introduces the concept of atoms as the basic units of matter. Atoms are not the smallest units of matter, however. Rather, atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are housed in the nucleus of an atom, and electrons, which surround the nucleus. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons possess no charge. Atoms differ from one another because of the number of protons present in their nuclei. For instance, atoms with only one proton in the nucleus are all hydrogen atoms. Atoms with 12 protons in the nucleus are all carbon atoms. Atoms are neutral particles, which mean they do not carry a charge. Therefore, atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. As stated previously, an atom's identity is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. Its chemical properties - in other words, what it reacts with - is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost energy level. Elements are made up of one type of atom. For example, a sample of the element gold is made up of far more than a trillion gold atoms. Elements are organized in a Periodic Table. They are organized in the table horizontally by an increasing number of protons and vertically, by recurring chemical properties. Elements in the same vertical column, also known as group, possess similar chemical properties.

Chemistry 101 - Molecules

Chemistry 101 defines molecules as combinations of more than one atom chemically bonded together. The type of bonds that are formed between atoms is determined by their chemical properties, which are ultimately determined by the number of electrons in their outermost energy levels. Atoms form bonds to fill their outermost energy levels with electrons. Molecules have full outermost energy levels. Noble gases, which are nonreactive gases such as helium and neon, do not form molecules because they already have full outermost energy levels. The strength of the bonds that atoms form together determines the resulting molecule's physical properties, such as state of matter - whether solid, liquid or gas - and melting and boiling points.

Chemistry 101 - States of Matter

Chemistry 101 describes the three states of matter in which atoms and molecules exist - solid, liquid and gas. Solids have tighter and more compact molecular structures than liquids, which have closer molecular structures than gases. Gas molecules exist very far apart from each other and interact as little as possible with each other. They do interact with each other, as predicted by Kinetic Molecular Theory, which says they travel in straight lines, randomly colliding with each other. Gases expand in volume with increasing heat, and decreasing pressure, and decrease in volume, with decreasing heat and increasing pressure.

Chemistry 101 - Solutions

Chemistry 101 defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that exists in a single phase, such as the liquid phase. The solute is the substance that exists in the lesser amount, and the solvent in the greater amount. For example, in a solution of salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent. Solutions in which water is the solvent are known as aqueous solutions. Solutions follow the saying, "like dissolves like," meaning that solutes and solvents with similar polarity - positive and negative regions - will dissolve in each other, whereas solutes and solvents in which one is polar and one is nonpolar will NOT dissolve in each other. Oil and water don't mix because oil is nonpolar, lacking positive and negative regions, and water is polar.

Chemistry 101 - Chemical Reactions

Chemistry 101 not only describes atoms and molecules, but most importantly, the reactions they undergo. Chemical reactions are interactions between pure substances - either atoms or molecules -- that result in the rearranging of atoms and molecules. It is important to note that atoms are never lost in chemical reactions. They are only rearranged. An example of a chemical reaction is the rusting of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen in the air to produce iron oxide.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Notice that there are 4 atoms of pure solid iron on the reactant (left) side of the equation ("s" stands for solid). These 4 iron atoms react with 3 oxygen gas molecules (oxygen exists in nature as two oxygen atoms bonded together) to form 2 molecules of Iron (III) oxide. The same number of iron and oxygen atoms exists on both sides of the equation, but they are now rearranged. Rearranging atoms to make new molecules completely changes their properties. Whereas iron is a metal, iron (III) oxide is a reddish powdery substance.

Chemistry 101 - Acids and Bases

In Chemistry 101, acids are defined as molecules that contribute hydrogen ions to solution. A hydrogen ion is a hydrogen atom that has lost its only electron. The stronger an acid the more hydrogen ions are donated to solution. The measure of hydrogen ion concentration is known as pH. pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The smaller the pH, the MORE hydrogen ions in solution. The larger the pH, the fewer hydrogen ions that exist in solution. Bases are molecules that take up hydrogen ions from solution. Equal amounts of equally strong acids and bases neutralize each other, producing water and a salt.

Chemistry 101 - Oxidation - Reduction Reactions

Chemistry 101 defines oxidation - reduction reactions as chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons. In the oxidation of iron reaction we studied previously, solid iron metal was oxidized, which means it lost electrons and oxygen was reduced, meaning it gained the electrons that iron lost.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Electricity is the movement of electrons from higher concentration to lower concentration. Since there is a movement of electrons from one substance to another in oxidation-reduction reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions are the basis of batteries. The oxidation and reduction reactions are separated from each other, and the transfer of electrons from the oxidation to the reduction are pushed along a wire, or some other external pathway In this way, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. Oxidation-reduction reactions can be reversed with the application of an external energy source in order to plate metals, such as copper-plating and gold-plating.

Chemistry 101 - Thermochemistry

Chemistry 101 teaches thermochemistry, which describes the heat of reactions. In chemical reactions, energy is neither created nor destroyed. This is known as the law of conservation of energy. Some chemical reactions require a net input of energy, known as endothermic reactions. Others produce a net output of energy, known as exothermic reactions. Chemical cold and hot packs you buy in the pharmacy are examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions, respectively. Adding heat to a substance increases its energy. The particles move more with this added energy, which is measured as temperature. Sometimes, this heat is used to change the phase or state of a substance, such as melting ice. Different substances have different specific heats, meaning that they require different amounts of energy to raise their temperature. For example, water has a high specific heat. It takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of water. This is why bodies of water tend to maintain their temperature. Metals have a low specific heat, meaning it doesn't take much energy to raise their temperature. I would much rather put my hand in a cup of water that was on the stove for 5 minutes than a metal object that was on the same stove.

Chemistry 101 - Rates of Reaction and Equilibrium

Chemistry 101 also teaches reaction rates and equilibrium. Reaction rate is a measure of the change in concentration of reactants (left side of the balanced chemical equation) or change in concentration of products (right side of the balanced chemical equation) over time. Reaction rate can be increased by increasing the concentration of reactants, increasing the temperature, surface area of the reactants and the addition of a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of a reaction, without being used up in the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Some chemical reactions are reversible. In that case, when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, the reaction is said to be in equilibrium. A system in equilibrium resists changes to its equilibrium state. This is known as Le Chatelier's Principle. For example, if more reactants are added, the system will move to create more products. If more heat is added, the system will move to reduce the amount of heat.

Chemistry 101 - Stoichiometry

A study of Chemistry 101 is not complete without a discussion of stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is the quantitative basis of chemistry. Chemical reactions occur on the atomic level, but we measure them on the macroscopic level, assigning the value of 1 mole to any 6.02 x 1023 particles of a pure substance. A mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms and weighs 12 g. Whereas we cannot measure atoms because we cannot see them, we can measure 12 g of carbon.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O

In the reaction above, 1 molecule of glucose reacts with 6 molecules of oxygen to produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water. Since we cannot see molecules, we can interpret this reaction in terms of moles. Remember that a mole is equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles. In this case, 1 mole of glucose reacts with 6 moles of oxygen to produce 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water. We can obtain the weight of a mole of any atom from the periodic table.

Glucose, C6H12O6, consists of 6 moles of carbon, each weighing 12 g, 12 moles of hydrogen, each weight 1 gram and 6 moles of oxygen, each weighing 16 grams. 1 mole of glucose weighs 180 grams. By mixing 180 grams of glucose with 6 moles of O2, or 6 x 2 x 16 grams = 192 grams of oxygen, we will generate 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water.
Chemistry is a quantitative science which requires dedicated study and practice. It is a worthwhile endeavor, as matter is the basis of all living and non-living things. Visit http://chemin10.com to learn Chemistry 101, first-year chemistry, in easy-to-learn 10 minute videos, with quizzes, forum and live online tutoring. Learn Chemistry 101 with Chem in 10.

Welcome to Chemistry 101, an introduction to Chemistry. Chemistry 101 will touch on the important topics of first year chemistry and beyond. These Chemistry 101 topics that will be discussed below are matter, atoms, molecules, states of matter, solutions, acids and bases, oxidation-reduction reactions, rates of reactions and equilibrium, thermochemistry and stoichiometry.

Chemistry 101 - Matter

Chemistry 101 begins with the introduction of matter, as chemistry is the study of matter. The atomic theory teaches that matter is made up of pure substances known as atoms and molecules. Atoms are single elemental particles, such as gold, silver and potassium. Molecules are chemical combinations of two or more atoms, such as water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Matter may also be composed of mixtures of substances, such as a glass of orange juice. A glass of juice is a mixture of many different atoms and compounds, which are NOT chemically combined. Because they are not chemically combined, they can be separated by physical means. For instance, water a pure substance, can be removed from orange juice, which is what juice manufacturers do to make concentrate.

Chemistry 101 - Atoms

Chemistry 101 introduces the concept of atoms as the basic units of matter. Atoms are not the smallest units of matter, however. Rather, atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are housed in the nucleus of an atom, and electrons, which surround the nucleus. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons possess no charge. Atoms differ from one another because of the number of protons present in their nuclei. For instance, atoms with only one proton in the nucleus are all hydrogen atoms. Atoms with 12 protons in the nucleus are all carbon atoms. Atoms are neutral particles, which mean they do not carry a charge. Therefore, atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. As stated previously, an atom's identity is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. Its chemical properties - in other words, what it reacts with - is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost energy level. Elements are made up of one type of atom. For example, a sample of the element gold is made up of far more than a trillion gold atoms. Elements are organized in a Periodic Table. They are organized in the table horizontally by an increasing number of protons and vertically, by recurring chemical properties. Elements in the same vertical column, also known as group, possess similar chemical properties.

Chemistry 101 - Molecules

Chemistry 101 defines molecules as combinations of more than one atom chemically bonded together. The type of bonds that are formed between atoms is determined by their chemical properties, which are ultimately determined by the number of electrons in their outermost energy levels. Atoms form bonds to fill their outermost energy levels with electrons. Molecules have full outermost energy levels. Noble gases, which are nonreactive gases such as helium and neon, do not form molecules because they already have full outermost energy levels. The strength of the bonds that atoms form together determines the resulting molecule's physical properties, such as state of matter - whether solid, liquid or gas - and melting and boiling points.

Chemistry 101 - States of Matter

Chemistry 101 describes the three states of matter in which atoms and molecules exist - solid, liquid and gas. Solids have tighter and more compact molecular structures than liquids, which have closer molecular structures than gases. Gas molecules exist very far apart from each other and interact as little as possible with each other. They do interact with each other, as predicted by Kinetic Molecular Theory, which says they travel in straight lines, randomly colliding with each other. Gases expand in volume with increasing heat, and decreasing pressure, and decrease in volume, with decreasing heat and increasing pressure.

Chemistry 101 - Solutions

Chemistry 101 defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that exists in a single phase, such as the liquid phase. The solute is the substance that exists in the lesser amount, and the solvent in the greater amount. For example, in a solution of salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent. Solutions in which water is the solvent are known as aqueous solutions. Solutions follow the saying, "like dissolves like," meaning that solutes and solvents with similar polarity - positive and negative regions - will dissolve in each other, whereas solutes and solvents in which one is polar and one is nonpolar will NOT dissolve in each other. Oil and water don't mix because oil is nonpolar, lacking positive and negative regions, and water is polar.

Chemistry 101 - Chemical Reactions

Chemistry 101 not only describes atoms and molecules, but most importantly, the reactions they undergo. Chemical reactions are interactions between pure substances - either atoms or molecules -- that result in the rearranging of atoms and molecules. It is important to note that atoms are never lost in chemical reactions. They are only rearranged. An example of a chemical reaction is the rusting of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen in the air to produce iron oxide.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Notice that there are 4 atoms of pure solid iron on the reactant (left) side of the equation ("s" stands for solid). These 4 iron atoms react with 3 oxygen gas molecules (oxygen exists in nature as two oxygen atoms bonded together) to form 2 molecules of Iron (III) oxide. The same number of iron and oxygen atoms exists on both sides of the equation, but they are now rearranged. Rearranging atoms to make new molecules completely changes their properties. Whereas iron is a metal, iron (III) oxide is a reddish powdery substance.

Chemistry 101 - Acids and Bases

In Chemistry 101, acids are defined as molecules that contribute hydrogen ions to solution. A hydrogen ion is a hydrogen atom that has lost its only electron. The stronger an acid the more hydrogen ions are donated to solution. The measure of hydrogen ion concentration is known as pH. pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The smaller the pH, the MORE hydrogen ions in solution. The larger the pH, the fewer hydrogen ions that exist in solution. Bases are molecules that take up hydrogen ions from solution. Equal amounts of equally strong acids and bases neutralize each other, producing water and a salt.

Chemistry 101 - Oxidation - Reduction Reactions

Chemistry 101 defines oxidation - reduction reactions as chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons. In the oxidation of iron reaction we studied previously, solid iron metal was oxidized, which means it lost electrons and oxygen was reduced, meaning it gained the electrons that iron lost.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Electricity is the movement of electrons from higher concentration to lower concentration. Since there is a movement of electrons from one substance to another in oxidation-reduction reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions are the basis of batteries. The oxidation and reduction reactions are separated from each other, and the transfer of electrons from the oxidation to the reduction are pushed along a wire, or some other external pathway In this way, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. Oxidation-reduction reactions can be reversed with the application of an external energy source in order to plate metals, such as copper-plating and gold-plating.

Chemistry 101 - Thermochemistry

Chemistry 101 teaches thermochemistry, which describes the heat of reactions. In chemical reactions, energy is neither created nor destroyed. This is known as the law of conservation of energy. Some chemical reactions require a net input of energy, known as endothermic reactions. Others produce a net output of energy, known as exothermic reactions. Chemical cold and hot packs you buy in the pharmacy are examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions, respectively. Adding heat to a substance increases its energy. The particles move more with this added energy, which is measured as temperature. Sometimes, this heat is used to change the phase or state of a substance, such as melting ice. Different substances have different specific heats, meaning that they require different amounts of energy to raise their temperature. For example, water has a high specific heat. It takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of water. This is why bodies of water tend to maintain their temperature. Metals have a low specific heat, meaning it doesn't take much energy to raise their temperature. I would much rather put my hand in a cup of water that was on the stove for 5 minutes than a metal object that was on the same stove.

Chemistry 101 - Rates of Reaction and Equilibrium

Chemistry 101 also teaches reaction rates and equilibrium. Reaction rate is a measure of the change in concentration of reactants (left side of the balanced chemical equation) or change in concentration of products (right side of the balanced chemical equation) over time. Reaction rate can be increased by increasing the concentration of reactants, increasing the temperature, surface area of the reactants and the addition of a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of a reaction, without being used up in the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Some chemical reactions are reversible. In that case, when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, the reaction is said to be in equilibrium. A system in equilibrium resists changes to its equilibrium state. This is known as Le Chatelier's Principle. For example, if more reactants are added, the system will move to create more products. If more heat is added, the system will move to reduce the amount of heat.

Chemistry 101 - Stoichiometry

A study of Chemistry 101 is not complete without a discussion of stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is the quantitative basis of chemistry. Chemical reactions occur on the atomic level, but we measure them on the macroscopic level, assigning the value of 1 mole to any 6.02 x 1023 particles of a pure substance. A mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms and weighs 12 g. Whereas we cannot measure atoms because we cannot see them, we can measure 12 g of carbon.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O

In the reaction above, 1 molecule of glucose reacts with 6 molecules of oxygen to produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water. Since we cannot see molecules, we can interpret this reaction in terms of moles. Remember that a mole is equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles. In this case, 1 mole of glucose reacts with 6 moles of oxygen to produce 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water. We can obtain the weight of a mole of any atom from the periodic table.

Glucose, C6H12O6, consists of 6 moles of carbon, each weighing 12 g, 12 moles of hydrogen, each weight 1 gram and 6 moles of oxygen, each weighing 16 grams. 1 mole of glucose weighs 180 grams. By mixing 180 grams of glucose with 6 moles of O2, or 6 x 2 x 16 grams = 192 grams of oxygen, we will generate 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water.
Chemistry is a quantitative science which requires dedicated study and practice. It is a worthwhile endeavor, as matter is the basis of all living and non-living things. Visit http://chemin10.com to learn Chemistry 101, first-year chemistry, in easy-to-learn 10 minute videos, with quizzes, forum and live online tutoring. Learn Chemistry 101 with Chem in 10.

Can Sound Shatter Glass

An opera singer belting out a note so loud it smashes a glass has long been a comedic image!

You might remember that in 1982 Ella Fitzgerald appeared in a TV ad for Memorex where she was shown breaking a glass with her incredible voice. Not to mention opera singer Caruso who claimed to achieved the feat with his voice; a rumour his wife soon quashed after his death!

Or what about the scene in 'Harry Potter' when the Fat Lady tries to break a glass with her operatic singing voice? When she fails to do so, she shatters the glass by hitting it off her picture frame - but tries to pass it off as a product of her talent!

Either she didn't know the secrets behind resonance breaking glass or she just wasn't a very good singer!

So: can it really be done? Can sound shatter glass?

The short answer is yes. However, the conditions are very specific and must be carried out properly. Simply place a pint glass next to your speakers, turn the music up loud and most likely the glass isn't going to break.

To break glass with sound the sound will have to match the natural frequency of a thin wine glass.

And to find the natural frequency (called resonance) - rub your finger round the rim until you discern a single note.

This is how Benjamin Franklin first recognised the tones that he went on to play after inventing his own glass armonica.

Once you know the resonance of the glass, you can belt out that note at 100 decibels. The glass will start to vibrate.

The shattering will happen when the glass can no longer withstand the frequency channelled by strong vibrations.

By the way research has shown that a box of good quality glasses are much less likely to break than a cheaper wine glass. A glass with a wine glass, however, tiny, will make the chances of smashing the glass far greater.

What about musical instruments? Professional trumpeter Nick tuned his note to the natural resonance of the glass and played repeatedly until the glass broke. Meanwhile, Salford University claim to have broken glass using a clarinet. Logic would suggest that in conjunction with a correctly tuned amp a guitar should be able to break glass too. However, no such feat has been recorded yet!

Therefore: the power of sound can shatter glass and now you know exactly how!

An opera singer belting out a note so loud it smashes a glass has long been a comedic image!

You might remember that in 1982 Ella Fitzgerald appeared in a TV ad for Memorex where she was shown breaking a glass with her incredible voice. Not to mention opera singer Caruso who claimed to achieved the feat with his voice; a rumour his wife soon quashed after his death!

Or what about the scene in 'Harry Potter' when the Fat Lady tries to break a glass with her operatic singing voice? When she fails to do so, she shatters the glass by hitting it off her picture frame - but tries to pass it off as a product of her talent!

Either she didn't know the secrets behind resonance breaking glass or she just wasn't a very good singer!

So: can it really be done? Can sound shatter glass?

The short answer is yes. However, the conditions are very specific and must be carried out properly. Simply place a pint glass next to your speakers, turn the music up loud and most likely the glass isn't going to break.

To break glass with sound the sound will have to match the natural frequency of a thin wine glass.

And to find the natural frequency (called resonance) - rub your finger round the rim until you discern a single note.

This is how Benjamin Franklin first recognised the tones that he went on to play after inventing his own glass armonica.

Once you know the resonance of the glass, you can belt out that note at 100 decibels. The glass will start to vibrate.

The shattering will happen when the glass can no longer withstand the frequency channelled by strong vibrations.

By the way research has shown that a box of good quality glasses are much less likely to break than a cheaper wine glass. A glass with a wine glass, however, tiny, will make the chances of smashing the glass far greater.

What about musical instruments? Professional trumpeter Nick tuned his note to the natural resonance of the glass and played repeatedly until the glass broke. Meanwhile, Salford University claim to have broken glass using a clarinet. Logic would suggest that in conjunction with a correctly tuned amp a guitar should be able to break glass too. However, no such feat has been recorded yet!

Therefore: the power of sound can shatter glass and now you know exactly how!

As Arctic Night Falls, Sea Ice Holds Its Ground

The sun has just set at the top of the world, and the weather in that neck of the woods is about as lousy as you would expect. The temperature dropped to 4 degrees Fahrenheit earlier this week at the world's northernmost outpost, Alert, in Canada's Nunavut territory.

Another Arctic winter is coming.

Nevertheless, the high Arctic is still the epicenter of global climate change, and the scientific and policy controversies that surround the topic. Much of the region has just experienced another abnormally warm summer. Springtime snowpack was extremely low across Siberia, which set the stage for thawing breezes to blow offshore toward the Arctic Ocean's ice pack. This followed a freakishly warm winter - part of last winter's strong La Nina event - over Greenland and eastern Canada, which left that typically frigid locale almost devoid of sea ice last season.

The result was that the Arctic ice pack was smaller than average when the melt season started, and it declined rapidly when warm winds blew over it from Siberia. For much of the season, the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) reported that the ice pack was at the smallest seasonal extent since regular satellite observations became available in 1979.

But the sea ice extent did not ultimately fall quite as low as the record set on Sept. 16, 2007. The NSIDC released preliminary figures this week showing that the ice pack reached its minimum on Sept. 9 at 1.67 million square miles, compared to 2007's low of 1.61 million square miles. (1) After touching its low for the year, the ice pack has made an unusually sharp turn upward, though it is not clear whether this is a result of early cold weather or of winds that can simply disperse the ice over a larger area of ocean.

These are the bare facts. How we interpret them depends largely on the perspectives and biases we bring to the task.

Most, though not all, of the climate science community is convinced that the reduction in Arctic sea ice, like many other phenomena such as the retreat of freshwater glaciers, is mainly the product of human-induced climate change. Reflecting this viewpoint, the NSIDC itself said this year's low point "continues the decadal trend of rapidly decreasing summer sea ice."

The NSIDC uses the first 22 seasons of satellite data, from 1979 through 2000, as its baseline for measuring departures from historic ice levels. During that period, the average minimum ice extent was 2.59 million square miles. The 2007 record low was 38 percent below this level - the continuation of a trend that was present even in the last decades of the 20th century, and which accelerated in the first years of the 21st.

But can we say that this year's low marks a further progression of this trend? If we were just graphing the two data points - the minimum ice extent for 2007 and 2011 - we would observe a slight rise. The rise itself is not significant, but it calls into question whether this year's data really represents a continuation of "rapidly decreasing" summer ice. (The NSIDC notes that other researchers, using other data sources that were not available during the baseline period, believe this year's ice extent or volume was lower than in 2007, but there is no way to quantify long-term trends in those data sets.)

The trend line is equally unclear if we consider the results of the intervening years. In 2008, the sea ice recovered somewhat from its low point. It recovered further, and more substantially, in 2009. Then the ice pack shrank last summer back to 1.78 million square miles, a tad larger than 2008. I think the fairest way to describe the figures is that, after a period of rapid shrinkage earlier in the decade, the ice pack's summer minimum size has fluctuated over the past four years.

This is not entirely unexpected. Researchers for the Study of Environmental Arctic Change wrote in 2008 that ice levels might fluctuate for several years until, as happened in the summer of 2007, a dramatic ice loss in a single year brings the pack to a new and lower plateau. The process would repeat itself as more time passed. (2) Of course, if you were skeptical of the scare headlines from several summers ago that predicted the imminent demise of the ice pack, you would not be surprised to find that the floating ice has been holding its ground.

I follow developments in the Arctic for several reasons. First, I find the science interesting and the region fascinating. Second, the far northern latitudes have always been most sensitive to dramatic swings in climate, going back in recorded time to the Viking era and extending far earlier in prehistory. But mostly, I follow this because climate trends and what to do about them present one of the most important and difficult policy questions of our lifetime, one that may extend well into the adulthoods of our children and grandchildren.

Climate has always changed, often radically and sometimes suddenly. Not that long ago, geologically speaking, the great Laurentide ice sheet covered the sites of modern New York City and Chicago; a remnant persists on Canada's Baffin Island today. Less than 13,000 years ago, as the glaciers generally retreated, a 1,300-year period known as the Younger Dryas (also called "the Big Freeze") sent temperatures in the middle latitudes plummeting; scientists believe the change occurred in less than a decade. More recently, there was the warm period during which Iceland and Greenland were settled, the Little Ice Age that coincided with the Renaissance, and the modern period of warming.

I don't doubt that climate changes, and I don't doubt that human activity is a factor, given the changes in our atmosphere's composition and in land use patterns. But I question our ability to accurately model future climate trends when we have such an imperfect understanding of historical climate shifts. And I especially doubt our political and scientific readiness to respond to climate change in ways that also recognize that the human population is 7 billion and growing and that all those people need adequate food, clean water, suitable shelter, and ways to make a living, now and in the future.

So I keep an eye each summer on the news from the far north. If the Arctic ice pack is really disappearing, it's going to have to shrink further than it already has. The past four years have not provided much evidence either way.

Sources:

1) National Snow and Ice Data Center, "Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis"

2) Study of Environmental Arctic Change, "2008 Outlook - Summary Report"

The sun has just set at the top of the world, and the weather in that neck of the woods is about as lousy as you would expect. The temperature dropped to 4 degrees Fahrenheit earlier this week at the world's northernmost outpost, Alert, in Canada's Nunavut territory.

Another Arctic winter is coming.

Nevertheless, the high Arctic is still the epicenter of global climate change, and the scientific and policy controversies that surround the topic. Much of the region has just experienced another abnormally warm summer. Springtime snowpack was extremely low across Siberia, which set the stage for thawing breezes to blow offshore toward the Arctic Ocean's ice pack. This followed a freakishly warm winter - part of last winter's strong La Nina event - over Greenland and eastern Canada, which left that typically frigid locale almost devoid of sea ice last season.

The result was that the Arctic ice pack was smaller than average when the melt season started, and it declined rapidly when warm winds blew over it from Siberia. For much of the season, the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) reported that the ice pack was at the smallest seasonal extent since regular satellite observations became available in 1979.

But the sea ice extent did not ultimately fall quite as low as the record set on Sept. 16, 2007. The NSIDC released preliminary figures this week showing that the ice pack reached its minimum on Sept. 9 at 1.67 million square miles, compared to 2007's low of 1.61 million square miles. (1) After touching its low for the year, the ice pack has made an unusually sharp turn upward, though it is not clear whether this is a result of early cold weather or of winds that can simply disperse the ice over a larger area of ocean.

These are the bare facts. How we interpret them depends largely on the perspectives and biases we bring to the task.

Most, though not all, of the climate science community is convinced that the reduction in Arctic sea ice, like many other phenomena such as the retreat of freshwater glaciers, is mainly the product of human-induced climate change. Reflecting this viewpoint, the NSIDC itself said this year's low point "continues the decadal trend of rapidly decreasing summer sea ice."

The NSIDC uses the first 22 seasons of satellite data, from 1979 through 2000, as its baseline for measuring departures from historic ice levels. During that period, the average minimum ice extent was 2.59 million square miles. The 2007 record low was 38 percent below this level - the continuation of a trend that was present even in the last decades of the 20th century, and which accelerated in the first years of the 21st.

But can we say that this year's low marks a further progression of this trend? If we were just graphing the two data points - the minimum ice extent for 2007 and 2011 - we would observe a slight rise. The rise itself is not significant, but it calls into question whether this year's data really represents a continuation of "rapidly decreasing" summer ice. (The NSIDC notes that other researchers, using other data sources that were not available during the baseline period, believe this year's ice extent or volume was lower than in 2007, but there is no way to quantify long-term trends in those data sets.)

The trend line is equally unclear if we consider the results of the intervening years. In 2008, the sea ice recovered somewhat from its low point. It recovered further, and more substantially, in 2009. Then the ice pack shrank last summer back to 1.78 million square miles, a tad larger than 2008. I think the fairest way to describe the figures is that, after a period of rapid shrinkage earlier in the decade, the ice pack's summer minimum size has fluctuated over the past four years.

This is not entirely unexpected. Researchers for the Study of Environmental Arctic Change wrote in 2008 that ice levels might fluctuate for several years until, as happened in the summer of 2007, a dramatic ice loss in a single year brings the pack to a new and lower plateau. The process would repeat itself as more time passed. (2) Of course, if you were skeptical of the scare headlines from several summers ago that predicted the imminent demise of the ice pack, you would not be surprised to find that the floating ice has been holding its ground.

I follow developments in the Arctic for several reasons. First, I find the science interesting and the region fascinating. Second, the far northern latitudes have always been most sensitive to dramatic swings in climate, going back in recorded time to the Viking era and extending far earlier in prehistory. But mostly, I follow this because climate trends and what to do about them present one of the most important and difficult policy questions of our lifetime, one that may extend well into the adulthoods of our children and grandchildren.

Climate has always changed, often radically and sometimes suddenly. Not that long ago, geologically speaking, the great Laurentide ice sheet covered the sites of modern New York City and Chicago; a remnant persists on Canada's Baffin Island today. Less than 13,000 years ago, as the glaciers generally retreated, a 1,300-year period known as the Younger Dryas (also called "the Big Freeze") sent temperatures in the middle latitudes plummeting; scientists believe the change occurred in less than a decade. More recently, there was the warm period during which Iceland and Greenland were settled, the Little Ice Age that coincided with the Renaissance, and the modern period of warming.

I don't doubt that climate changes, and I don't doubt that human activity is a factor, given the changes in our atmosphere's composition and in land use patterns. But I question our ability to accurately model future climate trends when we have such an imperfect understanding of historical climate shifts. And I especially doubt our political and scientific readiness to respond to climate change in ways that also recognize that the human population is 7 billion and growing and that all those people need adequate food, clean water, suitable shelter, and ways to make a living, now and in the future.

So I keep an eye each summer on the news from the far north. If the Arctic ice pack is really disappearing, it's going to have to shrink further than it already has. The past four years have not provided much evidence either way.

Sources:

1) National Snow and Ice Data Center, "Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis"

2) Study of Environmental Arctic Change, "2008 Outlook - Summary Report"

10 Things You Need To Know About The Metal Tungsten

Tungsten is an element represented on the periodic table by the W symbol and has an atomic number of 74. Ever wonder why tungsten's symbol is W? Well, this element is known by many as wolfram, which better coincides with the representative symbol. Yet, there is still a great deal more that you probably want to know about this interesting element. Read on to find out ten facts you should know about tungsten. It won't hurt... we promise.

1. Tungsten is a grayish white fairly lustrous metal that occurs on Earth naturally, but in chemical compounds only.

2. Carl Wilhelm Scheele located tungstic acid in 1781 when he found that it could be created from scheelite. He conferred with Torbern Bergman and the duo suggested that a new metal may be possible if this acid were reduced. Two years later, brothers Fausto and Jose Elhuyar discovered an acid that was produced from wolframite and identical to the tungstic acid discovered by Scheele. Later in the year, this duo was able to use charcoal to reduce the acid, making them successful in the isolation of tungsten. Therefore, the Elhuyar brothers were credited with tungsten's discovery.

3. Tungsten's name originates from the Nordic words for heavy stone," tung sten". This name is widely used in several languages, including English and French. However, wolfram is normally used in Slavic, German and most other European languages. This is derived from wolframite, which is a mineral and was the name that Johan Gottschalk Wallerius gave to tungsten in 1747.

4. In its raw form, tungsten is a brittle metal that is difficult to work; however, if the metal is pure, it will be remarkably more workable. Tungsten is worked using drawing, extruding, forging or sintering.

5. Of all pure form metals, tungsten's melting point is the highest at 3422 degrees Celsius, as is its tensile strength. Its vapor pressure is the lowest of all metals and it has the lowest thermal expansion coefficient of all pure metals.

6. Tungsten is resistant to attacks made by acids, alkalis and oxygen. This metal's resistance properties make it extremely desirable.

7. Tungsten can be found in four main minerals: ferberite, hubnerite, scheelite and wolframite.

8. In 2009, the majority of the world's tungsten output was produced by China at 51,000 tons. That represented 83% of worldwide production. The remainder of tungsten was produced by Austria, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Rwanda and Thailand.

9. Tungsten, though a heavy element, does play a role in biological function. Tungsten is used by several forms of bacteria, such as oxidoreductases, which create aldehydes by reducing carboxylic acids; however, these enzymes also have the ability to catalyse oxidations.

10. Tungsten is primarily used to produce hard materials for various industries; tungsten carbide being the most common. However, this element is also used to create steels and alloys, such as high speed steel. In addition, about 10% of all tungsten produced will be used to form chemical Compounds.

Tungsten is an element represented on the periodic table by the W symbol and has an atomic number of 74. Ever wonder why tungsten's symbol is W? Well, this element is known by many as wolfram, which better coincides with the representative symbol. Yet, there is still a great deal more that you probably want to know about this interesting element. Read on to find out ten facts you should know about tungsten. It won't hurt... we promise.

1. Tungsten is a grayish white fairly lustrous metal that occurs on Earth naturally, but in chemical compounds only.

2. Carl Wilhelm Scheele located tungstic acid in 1781 when he found that it could be created from scheelite. He conferred with Torbern Bergman and the duo suggested that a new metal may be possible if this acid were reduced. Two years later, brothers Fausto and Jose Elhuyar discovered an acid that was produced from wolframite and identical to the tungstic acid discovered by Scheele. Later in the year, this duo was able to use charcoal to reduce the acid, making them successful in the isolation of tungsten. Therefore, the Elhuyar brothers were credited with tungsten's discovery.

3. Tungsten's name originates from the Nordic words for heavy stone," tung sten". This name is widely used in several languages, including English and French. However, wolfram is normally used in Slavic, German and most other European languages. This is derived from wolframite, which is a mineral and was the name that Johan Gottschalk Wallerius gave to tungsten in 1747.

4. In its raw form, tungsten is a brittle metal that is difficult to work; however, if the metal is pure, it will be remarkably more workable. Tungsten is worked using drawing, extruding, forging or sintering.

5. Of all pure form metals, tungsten's melting point is the highest at 3422 degrees Celsius, as is its tensile strength. Its vapor pressure is the lowest of all metals and it has the lowest thermal expansion coefficient of all pure metals.

6. Tungsten is resistant to attacks made by acids, alkalis and oxygen. This metal's resistance properties make it extremely desirable.

7. Tungsten can be found in four main minerals: ferberite, hubnerite, scheelite and wolframite.

8. In 2009, the majority of the world's tungsten output was produced by China at 51,000 tons. That represented 83% of worldwide production. The remainder of tungsten was produced by Austria, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Rwanda and Thailand.

9. Tungsten, though a heavy element, does play a role in biological function. Tungsten is used by several forms of bacteria, such as oxidoreductases, which create aldehydes by reducing carboxylic acids; however, these enzymes also have the ability to catalyse oxidations.

10. Tungsten is primarily used to produce hard materials for various industries; tungsten carbide being the most common. However, this element is also used to create steels and alloys, such as high speed steel. In addition, about 10% of all tungsten produced will be used to form chemical Compounds.

10 Things You Need To Know About Lead

Most of us probably learned more about lead in chemistry class than we had ever known about it before. I, for instance, remembered its symbol on the periodic table, Pb, in an unusually weird way. I associated it with peanut butter. Don't ask me why or how, but it worked. The atomic number for lead is 82, which represents the number of protons that the stable isotopes in lead have. What else don't you know about lead? Read on to find out!

1. Lead is not credited to anyone in terms of discovery because it has been in use for ages. In fact, in Catalhoyuk (today's Turkey), lead beads that are estimated to be as old as 6400 BCE were found. Romans produced a great deal of lead as well, though it was usually produced as a silver smelting by-product.

2. When it is first cut, lead appears silvery to bluish-white in color; however, it tarnishes fairly quickly after exposing it to air. This tarnishing leaves it looking like more of a metallic gray color. When melted, it looks like a shiny, silvery-chrome colored substance.

3. Lead is a very soft and ductile metal that is highly malleable and quite dense. Compared to other metals, it is also a poor conductor of electricity, although it is remarkably corrosion resistant. In fact, lead is often used for the containment of corrosive liquids.

4. The Roman economy was the biggest preindustrial lead producer. The estimated output per year was 80,000 tons. The Romans mined in Asia Minor, the Balkans, Central Europe, Hispania and Roman Britain. This mining was responsible for nearly 40% of the world's production.

5. Lead in its metallic form does occur freely in nature, but these occurrences are rare. It is most frequently located in ores with copper, silver and zinc. Galena is the main lead containing mineral, with an average of 86.6% lead.

6. Lead is currently produced in Australia, Canada, China, Mexico, Morocco, North Korea, Peru, South America, Sweden and the United States. In 2008, the United States, China and Australi were responsible for over half of the primary production.

7. Estimations suggest that the lead supply could possibly be depleted within the next 40 years. However, some environmentalists believe it could run out much sooner - some believe in less than half of this estimated depletion time. Yet, with many taking an interest in being green and recycling, these estimates could change.

8. Lead is considered poisonous due to its ability to cause severe damage to the nervous system, as well as cause brain and blood disorders. Young children are especially vulnerable. The most typical form of lead poisoning is caused by lead contamination in water or food, but lead dust, lead paint or contaminated soil can also cause poisoning.

9. Lead exposure occurs through dermal contact, ingestion and inhalation. The latter two are the most frequently encountered methods of exposure.

10. In early August of 2010, the EPA was presented with a petition to ban lead-based fishing tackle and ammunition, as it poisons wildlife. The petition was denied on August 27, 2010

Most of us probably learned more about lead in chemistry class than we had ever known about it before. I, for instance, remembered its symbol on the periodic table, Pb, in an unusually weird way. I associated it with peanut butter. Don't ask me why or how, but it worked. The atomic number for lead is 82, which represents the number of protons that the stable isotopes in lead have. What else don't you know about lead? Read on to find out!

1. Lead is not credited to anyone in terms of discovery because it has been in use for ages. In fact, in Catalhoyuk (today's Turkey), lead beads that are estimated to be as old as 6400 BCE were found. Romans produced a great deal of lead as well, though it was usually produced as a silver smelting by-product.

2. When it is first cut, lead appears silvery to bluish-white in color; however, it tarnishes fairly quickly after exposing it to air. This tarnishing leaves it looking like more of a metallic gray color. When melted, it looks like a shiny, silvery-chrome colored substance.

3. Lead is a very soft and ductile metal that is highly malleable and quite dense. Compared to other metals, it is also a poor conductor of electricity, although it is remarkably corrosion resistant. In fact, lead is often used for the containment of corrosive liquids.

4. The Roman economy was the biggest preindustrial lead producer. The estimated output per year was 80,000 tons. The Romans mined in Asia Minor, the Balkans, Central Europe, Hispania and Roman Britain. This mining was responsible for nearly 40% of the world's production.

5. Lead in its metallic form does occur freely in nature, but these occurrences are rare. It is most frequently located in ores with copper, silver and zinc. Galena is the main lead containing mineral, with an average of 86.6% lead.

6. Lead is currently produced in Australia, Canada, China, Mexico, Morocco, North Korea, Peru, South America, Sweden and the United States. In 2008, the United States, China and Australi were responsible for over half of the primary production.

7. Estimations suggest that the lead supply could possibly be depleted within the next 40 years. However, some environmentalists believe it could run out much sooner - some believe in less than half of this estimated depletion time. Yet, with many taking an interest in being green and recycling, these estimates could change.

8. Lead is considered poisonous due to its ability to cause severe damage to the nervous system, as well as cause brain and blood disorders. Young children are especially vulnerable. The most typical form of lead poisoning is caused by lead contamination in water or food, but lead dust, lead paint or contaminated soil can also cause poisoning.

9. Lead exposure occurs through dermal contact, ingestion and inhalation. The latter two are the most frequently encountered methods of exposure.

10. In early August of 2010, the EPA was presented with a petition to ban lead-based fishing tackle and ammunition, as it poisons wildlife. The petition was denied on August 27, 2010

An Aviation Degree Requires Advanced Preparation In Science And Math

There was a time when being a pilot was at the top of the list for young boys when asked, โ€œWhat do you want to be when you grow up?With today's advancements in science and technology, some students may feel pursuing an aviation career is out of reach. Obtaining an aviation degree is obtainable if you prepare yourself by taking preparatory courses during your high school tenure.High schools offer a variety of advanced-level science and math AP courses so that students can gain a solid foundation before trekking off to college.

Preparatory classes give students confidence and empower them to excel beyond the high school level. This article will review a few of the core math and science courses a future aviation student should master by the time he/she graduates high school.Algebra is the building block upon which all subsequent math courses reply upon. Consequently, you must master this subject before advancing to higher-level math courses. If you don't have a firm grasp of mathematics, aviation is not the field for you. Algebra utilizes letters and other symbols to formulate equations for problem solving.

In regards to aviation, algebra is useful for interpreting maps and setting courses, and reading barometric pressure and temperature gages.Statistics is the collection, organizing, and transcription of data. From this class you will learn how to construct, read, and interpret tables, charts and graphs. Statistics are used to create convincing arguments based on data analysis. The world of aviation makes use of statistics on a daily basis. For example, they are used to create air safety reports, forecast future airport activity, and monitor arrival and departure frequency.

Geometry introduces you to world of concepts, problem solving and applications in relation to shapes and figures. Geometry helps you to describe the physical world. That is instrumental in the world of aviation. Aviation geometry is required for reading and interpreting maps and laying out airplane flight paths.Calculus deals with limits, derivatives, integrals, functions, and infinite series, which are crucial for understanding flight properties. Calculus also provides the basic foundation for the principals of speed, direction, and motion.

Consequently, calculus is instrumental in the design and production of all aircraft carriers.The basis of physics is derived from the elements of calculus. Physics is about the nature of basic things such as motion, force, energy, matter, heat, sound, light, and the insides of atoms. Knowledge of this physical science will be utilized in solving problems related to aircraft maintenance and basic aerodynamics (how an airplane is able to fly).