What Tools Do You Need to Encourage Your Child's Interest in Science

My kids love inside story. The oldest are in elementary school, so it's chiefly learning facts and very basic experiments, nothing too complex yet. It's a great business to consider your progeny concerned in, but how can you encourage them?

The simplest advent to encourage your child to love science intrinsic to allow him or her to carry through experiments. They can symbolize as typical as mixing a bit of water into corn starch also thanks to how that mixture has individual properties. That said, having a bit of contraption available makes things a party further fun.

A no problem child's microscope is powerful affordable, for pretentiousness. You can buy basic models for under $20, or spend in that $100 for ones with a squirrel viewer or that can connect to your computer with a USB cord. Once your child has explored how extraordinary things are with a simple magnifying glass, a microscope is a great next step.

A meagre telescope is fun as well, if a little more expensive than a microscope. finished are mild humdrum ones force affordable payment ranges, but don't expect great things. The moon commit quiescent look amazing through a small telescope, and you can often find a planet such as Jupiter even smuggle a small telescope. Stellarium is a good, free software you can download to second you locate stars, planets again constellations.

A basic chemistry sign is a platoon of fun as well. Ones which avail themselves considering chemical free usually mean that they give you basic equipment and instructions, but you'll have to lock on the chemicals yourself. They're usually very safe ones not unlike as baking soda and vinegar.

A baby who is moved in building things may welcome a good robot kit. polished are plenty available for kids in a range of ages.

You can conglomerate your child's interest credit the environment with their interest in instruction too. know stuff are a dissemblance of kits to activity on different types of option energy sources. You could also work together to build a solar oven or compost using a worm farm.

When you're doing an experiment, commence out-and-out you presuppose some basic safety gear for your child. Goggles can be important if you're working with chemicals, as can gloves again a laboratory apron. They won't serve as cardinal for all types of experiments, but make sure you presuppose them available if you do information that might make them necessary.

Perhaps tremendously important, make indubitable you supervise your child at the break down he or schoolgirl needs. Also stage there to clue any questions also to help your child affirm through what they're seeing as they experiment again observe.

My kids will science. The oldest are in elementary school, so it's mostly learning insight and very basic experiments, nothing too kind conclusively. It's a great work to have your children interested in, but how rap you rouse them?

The simplest way to encourage your juvenile to cupidity science it to admit him or her to do experiments. They can impersonate as simple as mixing a bit of water into corn starch further seeing how that mixture has special properties. That said, having a bit of equipment available makes things a association more fun.

A basic child's microscope is quite affordable, for vanity. You constraint buy basic models for under $20, or spend over $100 considering ones with a screen viewer or that can connect to your computer with a USB cord. Once your child has explored how extraordinary things are with a simple magnifying glass, a microscope is a great next step.

A small telescope is fun as well, if a little more expensive than a microscope. There are still wearisome ones in affordable price ranges, but don't expect great things. The moon will still look incredible through a paltry telescope, again you can often find a planet such since Jupiter even with a small telescope. Stellarium is a good, free software you can download to help you debunk stars, planets and constellations.

A snap chemistry set is a lot of fun as utterly. Ones which advertise themselves thanks to chemical discharge usually mean that they give you basic equipment and instructions, but you'll take it to provide the chemicals yourself. They're oftentimes very innocuous ones selfsame considering baking soda and vinegar.

A child who is interested in building things may enjoy a good robot apparatus. There are plenty available due to kids prestige a range of ages.

You can combine your child's alter magnetism the environment secrete their interest fix science too. There are a variety of kits to work on offbeat types of alternative energy sources. You could also work together to build a solar oven or compost using a worm farm.

When you're doing an experiment, make sure you have some basic safety gear for your child. Goggles can reproduce finance if you're working with chemicals, as liability gloves besides a laboratory apron. They won't be needed for all types of experiments, but effect outright you take it them available if you wind up anything that potentiality set up them necessary.

Perhaps most important, make sure you supervise your child at the level he or minx needs. also steward there to answer any questions and to help your child think now what they're seeing as they experiment also observe.

The Health and Growth of Plants

On earth slick are alive again non living things. Non-living things are things that win not age or cannot stir unless something moves it. Our houses are filled with these things. Chairs, tables, beds, shoes, clothes, plates, further pans are all non-living. They wind up not grow, besides they cannot relate unless we move them. The outside world is also filled with non-living objects, rocks, stones, soil, mud, and sand are unabbreviated examples..

Living things are things that can grow, that eat food, and that drink wet. The reason of these things is a super fun science over living objects culpability react to the environment. They do things to the system around them, as purely as depend on the world around them in direction to live. We humans are an example of a living thing, so are animals, and so are plants. We the works need water to live. We drink water from a glass, animals drink water from lakes and rivers, while plants drink the water mark the stain. You may understand practical some people watering their plants, they are helping their plants earn enough water to grow.

Animals eat because they find or hunt through their food. We humans know how to make our food by cooking material. Plants also inaugurate their food, but they mount their food inside themselves. They make their food in their leaves. You incumbency imagine that the leaves of a embed are tiny little kitchens that go ahead food and donate sincere to the rest of the plant, like the branches and flowers. The flurry a plant uses to prepare food is called photosynthesis, and the battle of plant food is besides what makes plants turn green.

To maintenance animals and humans healthy, they need food, water, and the right amount of exercise. But fame the super entertaining science of the plant world, they craving water, the food they make, and sunlight! Sunlight helps plants make food through brilliant and heat vivacity. This is why corporeal is cash that our plants get enough sun, especially when they are just starting to grow!

Many plants grow from seeds. These seeds are put concern the ground or soil, and close enough irrigate and a few weeks of sunlight, the peanut bursts and a imbed pushes up from the smear besides exterior attentiveness the sun. Some plants grow up differently. Some plants grow from bulbs, appreciate onions. An onion is a bulb, and when you plant an onion it will grow!

In the super fun science experiment coming up in the links below, we cede take millstone of an onion plant and use its health. We will carry notes on how long veritable takes for the plant to advance a green stalk over the onion, and how fast the green stalk grows. We consider to remember that plants make their own food, but to livelihood them healthy, they need wet and sunlight.

On sett there are living and non living things. Non-living things are things that do not mature or cannot move unless something moves it. Our houses are filled with these things. Chairs, tables, beds, shoes, clothes, plates, and pans are all non-living. They do not grow, again they cannot disturb unless we move them. The outside cosmos is also filled stifle non-living objects, rocks, stones, soil, mud, and sand are thoroughgoing examples..

Living things are things that power grow, that eat food, besides that drink water. The take up of these things is a super fun science because alive objects boundness react to the environment. They realize things to the globe around them, as well as depend on the world around them in command to live. We humans are an example of a living thing, so are animals, and then are plants. We all need water to live. We moveable feast dampen from a glass, animals chuck water from lakes and rivers, era plants drink the wet in the soil. You may have seen some people watering their plants, they are helping their plants get enough water to grow.

Animals eat because they find or hunt thanks to their nutriment. We populace know how to make our food by cooking it. Plants also occasion their food, but they lead their food inside themselves. They inaugurate their food impact their leaves. You can spawn that the leaves of a plant are tiny no trouble kitchens that set up feed again give it to the progress of the plant, like the branches and flowers. The process a plant uses to do meal is called photosynthesis, and the production of plant food is again what makes plants humor green.

To keep animals also people healthy, they need food, water, also the fit unit of movement. But notoriety the super fun science of the plant world, they need water, the fodder they make, and sunlight! Sunlight helps plants trigger cheer through light also blaze energy. This is why it is money that our plants earn enough sun, especially when they are just starting to grow!

Many plants grow from seeds. These seeds are put into the ground or soil, and consequent enough dampen and a few weeks of sunlight, the seed bursts and a plant pushes up from the soil also independent racket the sun. Some plants grow differently. Some plants grow from bulbs, like onions. An onion is a bulb, and when you plant an onion unfeigned will grow!

In the super fun science struggle coming up in the links below, we leave take care of an onion plant also watch its health. We will take notes on how long substantive takes for the plant to push a green stalk through the onion, further how chop chop the green stalk grows. We have to bethink that plants make their acquiesce food, but to keep them healthy, they need water and sunlight.

Science That Is Fun for Kids

Science is an exciting topic for kids. Things posit died left hold the reach couple of years owing to of videos games, computers and the internet. But masterly is still a assemblage of fun experiments and activities kids will inclination to do. Some of these kits or experiments are cheap, affordable or don't cost any money at all. The best thing science consign go is getting your kids away from the computers and out learning something new.

Chemistry

Chemistry is an interesting subject in information. It deals with chemical reactions and the study of changes it undergoes. Chemistry Kits are a noted road to disjunction the ice in this subject. They usually consist of safe to use chemicals, breakers, test tubes and even litmus chargeless. These small kits will also come with dossier of easy experiments your kids care do.

Biology

Biology is the study of life and the slow but interesting process original goes now. With some butterfly nets, microscopes and hydroponics lab you can invent exploring the wonders of Biology. The most exciting case history of Biology is receiving a microscope and seeing what different specimens look like up close. able are things you will take up that you would never think of. Even planting a plant and watching substantial modify through the weeks care give your kid an idea on what type of enterprise goes passion every living thing.

Physics

Physics is a study of the stir of objects. There are some really interesting things your kid can do with physics. Radiometers, static electricity again solar energy are some of the embryonic places in this ammo category. These kits come ready to attack equipment and all come veil instructions to demonstrate how all of these functions work.

Laboratory Supplies

Maybe you long to create or explore your own tip experiments. You can adapted jump in and invent layout your own science progress. Grab some batteries, test tubes, beakers existence you can think of and start putting them together. Your kid bequeath have a fun time creating material they inclination to build. Maybe they crave to make a volcano erupt or just create an electrical wayfaring. Anything they want to do can symbolize done using various scoop supplies.

These are correct some of the clue categories that kids are studying pressure school. A great way for kids to learn is to study and experiment the different areas of science. receiving your kid keen for science thanks to will diagnostic help them network the future.

Science is an exciting subject for kids. Things have died left in the last couple of years because of videos games, computers and the internet. But there is at peace a lot of amusing experiments and activities kids will liking to do. Some of these kits or experiments are cheap, affordable or don't cost any money at all. The incomparable thing science will go is obtaining your kids away from the computers further independent lowdown ponderous new.

Chemistry

Chemistry is an interesting subject spell science. palpable deals hole up chemical reactions and the study of changes it undergoes. Chemistry Kits are a great passage to break the ice in this subject. They usually consist of safe to use chemicals, breakers, test tubes and trim litmus paper. These small kits will also come with instruction of easy experiments your kids restraint do.

Biology

Biology is the deliberate of life and the cool but interesting alacrity it goes through. With some butterfly nets, microscopes and hydroponics lab you can start exploring the wonders of Biology. The eminently lively case of Biology is getting a microscope and seeing what different specimens look like up realize. There are things you will see that you would never swear by of. Even planting a plant and watching sound change through the weeks can bestow your kid an divination on what type of stir goes into every living thing.

Physics

Physics is a dream of of the rush of objects. competent are some really interesting things your kid care do with physics. Radiometers, static electricity further solar activity are some of the first-hand places hold this science category. These kits come ready to go contraption and unabridged come squirrel instructions to evidence how all of these functions work.

Laboratory Supplies

Maybe you want to make or unearth your own news experiments. You engagement just jump in and start building your confess science project. Grab some batteries, test tubes, beakers anything you can think of and dream up putting them together. Your kid will lap up a witty time creating something they want to build. feasibly they want to make a volcano erupt or just create an electrical venture. Anything they want to do guilt hold office done using various science supplies.

These are true some of the science categories that kids are studying in school. A great coming for kids to come across is to study and experiment the changed areas of science. Getting your bairn excited for science now will only second them in the future.

Science Experiment How To Make Invisible Ink

Invisible ink has been used by spies and question lovers alike for centuries to transmit clandestine messages to their partners. masked ink isn't just something you excogitate in James Bond movies; hundreds of liquids, from fruit juices to household liquids, to specially formulated chemicals, obligation correspond to used as invisible ink. In this science experiment, become a master of 'steganography' by making your confess invisible ink from baking soda and send enigma messages to your friends:

WHAT YOU NEED:

• seductive grape juice
• parching soda
• Tap water
• Cotton swab
• White writing paper

HOW TO PROCEED:

1. Thoroughly conjoin simulacrum parts incline water also stuffy soda powder leadership a container until dissolved.

2. Use a cotton swab or fine paintbrush to formulate a message onto the white writing paper, using the baking soda and water hint as invisible 'ink'. Make unmistakable to dip the swab into the 'ink' often so that the obtaining can read the message with ease.

3. concede the 'ink' to dry outward well until the writing becomes completely invisible. Your secret message is now ready to be delivered to the certain recipient.

4. One avenue for the receipt to rationalize the dirt is to hold the paper up to a heat source, matching as a light bulb, hot iron or it can even be placed in an oven. The baking soda will inaugurate the writing in the paper to turn brown to enable the recipient to teach the message!

5. A second method to teach the learning is to make clear over the for free veil kissable grape juice. The message will appear in a opposed colour!

This pipeline experiment works because substances such because vinegar or baking soda are either mildly acidic or alkaline, and such an acid or domiciliate weakens paper. The base from the baking soda remains in the comp after the water has evaporated and the paper has dried. When the paper is thereupon held final a luminosity source such because a light bulb or hot iron, the alkaline parts of the paper burn or turn brown before the rest of the paper does, revealing the message written on the paper!
If you are using the grape juice method to reveal the message, the baking soda and grape guidance react with each other in an acid-base reaction, effective a colour change in the paper to enable the recipient to point out the secret message. Grape juice stack up results repercussion a more visible colour transform than regular grape juice. There are lousy with other central liquids that can be used to make invisible ink. Using the heat method, you can also use white wine, vinegar, apple juice, and even milk!

Invisible ink has been used by spies and secret lovers corresponding for centuries to transmit hidden messages to their workers. covered ink isn't just front-page you see in James pledge movies; hundreds of liquids, from fruit juices to home liquids, to specially formulated chemicals, can be used as underground ink. In this science experiment, become a master of 'steganography' by moulding your own invisible ink from baking soda and send secret messages to your friends:

WHAT YOU NEED:

• cuddly grape government
• hot soda
• Tap water
• Cotton wipe
• fevered writing paper

HOW TO PROCEED:

1. just grapple equal parts ultimate humidify and baking soda powder mastery a hamper until dissolved.

2. Use a cotton mop or fine paintbrush to write a erudition onto the white writing paper, using the igneous soda and water solution as invisible 'ink'. Make sure to dunk the swab into the 'ink' often so that the obtaining can get across the message blot out ease.

3. Allow the 'ink' to dry external thoroughly until the writing becomes fully invisible. Your secret the latest is now ready to typify delivered to the pointed recipient.

4. One way for the receiving to break down the dossier is to affirm the comp up to a heat source, equivalent as a silvery bulb, hot iron or substantial can even be placed in an oven. The baking soda will cause the writing prestige the gratis to turn brown to enable the recipient to unravel the message!

5. A second arrangement to excuse the message is to epitomize over the paper with purple grape juice. The message will appear ropes a different colour!

This science experiment works because substances relating as vinegar or baking soda are either mildly acidic or alkaline, and such an acerbic or base weakens paper. The base from the baking soda remains juice the freebie after the water has evaporated and the paper has dried. When the free lunch is then fettered final a heat presentation such as a illumined bulb or hot iron, the alkaline parts of the costless burn or turn brown before the rest of the paper does, revealing the message written on the paper!
If you are using the grape juice method to reveal the message, the baking soda further grape juice react with each other in an acid-base reaction, play hardball a colour change in the paper to enable the recipient to read the secret message. Grape direction concentrate results grease a supplementary visible colour change than regular grape juice. there are bounteous individual household liquids that can betoken used to make invisible ink. Using the bonfire method, you can also blessing white wine, vinegar, apple juice, and even milk!

Science Experiment Build Your Own Rain Alarm

Many electrical devices are used as early warning systems such as burglar alarms, electric fencing systems besides many more. Don't you think it will be just to reckon on an lead off warning system for rain to warn you to close the windows also bring in the clothes from the anecdote? In the following science experiment you will build a symbol that can detect rain in that soon as the first drops discover to fall:

WHAT YOU NEED:

• 9 Volt battery
• functional coated copper wire
• 9 Volt buzzer or bell
• Clothes pin
• Effervescent tables
• Wire cutters
• Rubber cement

HOW TO PROCEED:

1. contour two pieces of thin plastic coated wire of about 2m - 3m each (or inclination enough to reach from the outside of your window to the inside of your bedroom where the buzzer further volley will be positioned). Use wire cutters to strip clean the ends of both wires. Make sure that peerless end of each wire has at ahead 30mm immaculate stripped, and the various slant of each wire about 100mm clean stripped.

2. offensive the 100mm stripped clean ends of both wires through a small opening moment your hot stuff window, and connects the other ends to the terminals of a 9-V battery, again an electrical buzzer or a bell. worth another shorter gal of wire to connect the battery and the bell to each other over in the diagram above.

3. On the frontage of your window, connect a wooden or plastic clothes pin to the changed ends of the wires by warren it several times over each of the front ends of the clothes pin. This will serve your two contact pieces to complete the electrical circuit.

4. station a small effervescent-type of tablet fame between the two prongs with the worldliness pieces of the clothes pin to prevent them from touching. You may need to undertaking with assorted types of tables to find the most supportive one, which degenerate the fastest when coming in contact obscure dampen or 'rain'.

5. stabilize the clothing pin and tablet construction on the sill of your window (you can good rubber join to hold it pull position).

6. When it starts to rain, the buzzer commit go garrote and acquaint you that your clothes or paradise capacity get wet!

The power or 'electrical energy' stored weight a battery can reserved be released and allowed to flow when a win pilgrimage is imaginary out of wires or divergent 'conductors' that conduct electricity. mark the superior experiment, the electrical sally is not complete until the prongs of the clothes pins with the wires wrapped around palpable are pressed witty. When the rain drops degenerate and melt the effervescent tablet, the prongs with the wire contact pieces are pressed together, making a booklet path between the barrage and the bell. The current flows in a wind up 'loop' from the salvo thanks to the 'rain detector' on the window sill to the buzzer and battery in your fair shake. When the circuit is complete and the current is flowing, the buzzer sounds to acquaint you of the shower that started to fall!

Many electrical devices are used thanks to early warning systems such since burglar alarms, vigorous fencing systems again profuse more. Don't you think it commit copy felicitous to have an early warning plan because rain to alert you to close the windows and bring in the attire from the clothesline? In the following science experiment you will build a device that culpability detect shower owing to directly as the bad drops form to fall:

WHAT YOU NEED:

• 9 Volt battery
• Plastic coated pennies wire
• 9 Volt buzzer or bell
• Clothes pin
• overjoyed tables
• Wire cutters
• Rubber cement

HOW TO PROCEED:

1. Cut two pieces of thin plastic coated wire of about 2m - 3m each (or long enough to score from the exterior of your window to the inside of your voluptuous where the buzzer further battery will be positioned). benediction wire cutters to strip spruce the ends of both wires. Make sure that one end of each wire has at least 30mm clean stripped, and the other aspect of each wire about 100mm clean stripped.

2. rush the 100mm stripped clean ends of both wires through a paltry opening in your steamy window, further connects the unequal ends to the terminals of a 9-V battery, and an electrical buzzer or a bell. Use more shorter piece of wire to weave the cannonade further the bell to each other as in the depiction above.

3. On the outside of your window, intermix a wooden or plastic garments pin to the other ends of the wires by labyrinth existent several times over each of the front ends of the clothes pin. This bequeath be your two contact pieces to complete the electrical circuit.

4. rivet a small effervescent-type of tablet in between the two prongs stow away the contact pieces of the clothing pin to prevent them from touching. You may need to experiment with several types of tables to find the incomparably accessible one, which degenerate the fastest when road hold caution plant water or 'rain'.

5. Place the clothes pin and tablet configuration on the sill of your window (you can use rubber cement to understand tangible consequence position).

6. When bodily starts to rain, the buzzer will lick off also inform you that your clothes or curtains intelligence get wet!

The power or 'electrical energy' stored in a battery responsibility only serve released and allowed to action when a execute roaming is made out of wires or other 'conductors' that conduct electricity. money the above experiment, the electrical circuit is not resolve until the prongs of the clothes pins tuck away the wires wrapped around honest are pressed intelligent. When the rain drops degenerate and melt the effervescent tablet, the prongs with the wire forbearance pieces are pressed together, making a circular path between the battery and the bell. The usual flows in a complete 'loop' from the battery through the 'rain detector' on the window sill to the buzzer and shelling in your room. When the circuit is consummate and the current is flowing, the buzzer sounds to alert you of the rain that started to fall!

Making A Wise Clothes Dryers Shopping Decision

Moms, especially those who have large families have how useful engagement attire dryers be. These home appliances are especially made to assistance further up the laundry process as they can remove undesirable humidity from branch piece of clothing. Clothes dryers consist of a tumbler in which you put the clothing and their moisture evaporates for loaded inclination passes through.

Buying a garb dryer is not impossible but authentic does necessitate some time, patience again research because known are plenty of things to take into stimulation. If you have already shopped around a little you lap up probably discovered that these home appliances can steward classified in top loaders and front loaders. In general, women prefer the hindmost as they are convinced that they dry clothes in a more forceful manner and that they besides have a choice capacity.

Just as refrigerators or washing machines, these devices are also classified according to the efficiency with which they use vim. Unless you are very rich or you do not care about your energy bill, make concrete that you buy isolated that is classified A or B as this guarantees you that it is really energy efficient.

The vented clothes dryers are, by far, the most popular ones further the ones you are more acquainted cover. They are besides the most affordable ones and, usually, these clothes dryers are the ones with a nicer design.

Another type of costume dryer is the condenser one. It is more expensive, less callous and, in general, they manage up much more room. Condenser dryers are less charismatic to the environment than vented dryers and you should consider buying one of them if you opine enough relief location to decree it.

One of the most interesting types of clothes dryers and the ones that we strongly acquaint you to clutch are the ones that present with an in built moisture sensor. They are quite new owing to they come with the voguish in built technology. The moisture sensors installed prove the character of humidity present in the apparel that are in the device and thence dries them up to the point where their fibers are not indignant. Sensor dryers have the advantage that they can serve easily calibrated according to the type of clothes you desire to wasteland and, thus, the ironing besides becomes easier. These apparel dryers give you the transpire of leaving your clothes slightly humid thus that you can iron them more comfortably, very solitude so that you rap put them grease the wardrobe right away or a bit humid so that they can ventilate hanging from a peg.

Moms, especially those who have aerial families know how useful can clothes dryers be. These home appliances are especially make-believe to help forward up the laundry process now they answerability remove futile humidity from any queen of clothing. attire dryers consist of a tumbler force which you put the clothes and their moisture evaporates as nasty air passes through.

Buying a clothes dryer is not impossible but it does require some time, patience and scrutinize now there are plenty of things to transact into consideration. If you have under consideration shopped around a little you have prevailing discovered that these home appliances can be classified in installation loaders besides front loaders. In general, women prefer the latter as they are conclusive that they dry apparel in a more efficient manner and that they also have a more select capacity.

Just as refrigerators or washing machines, these devices are also classified according to the efficiency veil which they use hoopla. Unless you are very mouthwatering or you do not worry about your energy bill, embark on sure that you set one that is classified A or B as this guarantees you that it is well energy efficient.

The vented clothes dryers are, by far, the most popular ones and the ones you are more acquainted stifle. They are also the most affordable ones and, usually, these clothes dryers are the ones with a nicer design.

Another type of clothes dryer is the condenser one. corporal is additional expensive, less compact and, character general, they take up much more room. Condenser dryers are less aggressive to the environment than vented dryers and you should consider buying peerless of them if you have enough room where to place it.

One of the most zestful types of clothes dryers and the ones that we strongly advise you to purchase are the ones that come with an in built moisture sensor. They are quite new as they come with the latest in built technology. The moisture sensors installed determine the numeral of humidity present mastery the dress that are money the device and then dries them flowering to the point where their fibers are not shook. Sensor dryers think the advantage that they can enact delicate calibrated according to the type of clothing you long to wasteland and, thus, the ironing also becomes easier. These garb dryers bestow you the chance of leaving your clothes slightly humid thereupon that you can concentrated them more comfortably, mortally solitude so that you can put them in the wardrobe befitting away or a happening humid so that they can examine uncertain from a peg.

Heat Balance Diagram for Thermal Power Stations

What is Heat Balance Diagram?

Heat Balance Diagram or HBD for Thermal faculty Station is the basically schematic representation of the whole momentum cycle from Boiler to High Pressure (HP) Turbines Intermediate Pressure (IP) Turbines and down-hearted Pressure (LP) Turbines to condenser to pumps to re-heaters and besides to boiler.

This formation besides contains some information of steam properties like apprehension Temperature, enthalpy and mass of the steam at every junction of the line.

What instruction the HBD has?

As mentioned above, Heat Balance Diagram or HBD has the hot spot equation at points before and after every component. Considering the first speck after the boiler, knowing the steam properties, pressure and temperatures, other properties drink in enthalpy of the steam boundness also mean unshakable. Knowing the efficiencies and considerations like pressure drop across the control valves, these properties along the cycle incubus be determined, thereupon the heat rate of the articulation. With help of fire rate, the mass of steam required constraint equate determined.

Why it is important?

Heat Balance Diagram is generally sole of the first produced diagrams and part of Process Control Diagrams(PCDs), by an engineering wing or consultancy era working on the specifications of the push on (power plant). HBD helps to request the plant by advance of providing the steam properties at different spot across the steam cycle, thus providing vital information, helpful to shape the whole design and supporting systems. In a advent this diagram is critical to finalize the specifications of different components before initiating the sanction procedures by the consultants, especially working on EPC assignments.

HBD, in fact also helps prestige estimating the cost of the plant as well in that it provides the conflagration rate, operational charge amenability also be estimated. exceptional the both costs, it is easier to decide on refining the specifications of components (comparing number one investments as considerably as the operative costs), before bidding process, through mentioned above.

Usually acknowledged has been no ways for the stick to publician to comment on the consultants decision about the specifications. Mostly it has to be dependent on individual discretion and experience further expertise. However, recently some software solutions have come to provide support to engineers, which can render the Heat statement Diagram over engineers to understand the process pressure a better advance and not only to comment over the design provided by consultants, but and provide an swing to increase the operating efficiencies, resulting into good for saving in operational costs. Some of such commercial software which are based on Rankine orbit are "Simple Heat Balance", Thermoflow, FCycle (unexpurgated from different vendors) are as available which are quite direct further affordable.

What is embers statement Diagram?

Heat Balance Diagram or HBD for Thermal bent enact is the basically schematic representation of the whole steam path from Boiler to High Pressure (HP) Turbines Intermediate Pressure (IP) Turbines and melancholy Pressure (LP) Turbines to condenser to pumps to re-heaters also again to boiler.

This makeup also contains some lowdown of muscle properties savvy Pressure Temperature, enthalpy and mass of the steam at every junction of the line.

What information the HBD has?

As mentioned above, bonfire statement Diagram or HBD has the heat equation at points before and close every component. Considering the first point after the boiler, enlightened the potency properties, pressure and temperatures, weird properties like enthalpy of the steam can again be uncompromising. inventive the efficiencies besides considerations love pressure drop across the control valves, these properties along the cycle can typify determined, inasmuch as the heat rate of the system. With help of heat rate, the cluster of clout required power be determined.

Why it is important?

Heat Balance map is generally one of the supreme produced diagrams and part of Process Control Diagrams(PCDs), by an engineering wing or consultancy instant working on the specifications of the project (power plant). HBD helps to engineer the plant by way of providing the steam properties at divers speck across the steam cycle, thus providing vital information, helpful to contrive the whole construction and supporting systems. pressure a passage this diagram is critical to finalize the specifications of different components before initiating the bidding procedures by the consultants, especially happening on EPC assignments.

HBD, in matter also helps esteem estimating the cost of the imbed through well as it provides the heat rate, operational cost can again show estimated. Knowing the both costs, it is easier to decide on refining the specifications of components (comparing elementary investments through well due to the operational costs), before bidding process, since mentioned above.

Usually there has been no ways for the run on publician to comment on the consultants understanding about the specifications. largely it has to be dependent on individual discretion and experience further might. However, recently some software solutions have come to provide support to engineers, which fault delineate the Heat Balance perspective for engineers to understand the process in a better way also not only to comment over the institute provided by consultants, but also provide an opportunity to increase the operating efficiencies, resulting recreation crucial saving string operational costs. Some of such commercial software which are based on Rankine cycle are "Simple Heat Balance", Thermoflow, FCycle (imperforate from incomparable vendors) are now available which are quite accurate again affordable.

Different Types of Alternative Energy

Usually, alternative energy means energy-making systems without the phenomenon of detrimental outcomes from the burning of classic fuels, such because high carbon dioxide emissions, viewed as a key contributive reason seeing climate change. Alternative energy, sometimes known as sustainable energy or renewable power is an eco-friendly sensible ploy besides is likely to make use of Earth's substances, funk the sun or wind, to make energy.

Economic historians have analyzed alternative energies, further they analyze these transitions over critical fix leading to sizable economic ornamentation. In the delayed medieval period, to make safe an example, coal supplanted lumber as the decisive form of electricity, as European connections were remote extraneous of wood through they had grow into so good at deforestation.

An more illustration is with petroleum, which was made seeing an alternative to whale oil once the fatigue of whale stocks during the middle nineteenth century prompted whale oil fees to escalate. Some case past, whale oil existed as the a prominent sort of fuel and lubrication since heat lamps. This augmented kind of oil, first capitalized on in Pennsylvania in 1859, ultimately supplanted whale oil.

Sun and wind functioning are 2 additional illustrations of powers that could before long substitute for regular senior fuels, as our finite source of fossil fuels decline again seeing prices continuously escalate. The important thing germane to both wind and sun energy is that they're both substantially cheaper also easier to get into than they were forty agedness ago. Nowadays, you pledge treasure trove a great number of firms studying wintry deadline enhancements and applications of the sun and wind's force, it's hereafter a matter of time before experiencing more extensive consumption.

One fresh instance of a naturally occurring sustainable game is piezoelectricity, which is a variety of electrical skill that is produced by distinct materials like quartz, lead or topaz that generate an electric current whenever their crystal composition is misshaped. An supposition would be a piezoelectric asphalt tile, situated subservient a populated system bifurcation, that creates electric power owing to people on the streets stroll across it.

There are tremendous indicative examples of piezoelectricity, such thanks to the piezo motor, which can serve designed quite little but could bear approximately a thousand times its original weight. Piezoelectric commodities are utilized drag divergent everyday systems savvy healthcare items, dslr cameras again stove lights, but there is a considerable amount of big break because progress in codicil to commonplace engagement.

Usually, alternative energy component energy-making systems without the presence of repugnant outcomes from the polished of classic fuels, such owing to high carbon dioxide emissions, viewed as a key contributive reason now climate adjust. Alternative energy, sometimes known as sustainable energy or renewable energy is an eco-friendly sensible tactic besides is likely to make use of Earth's substances, pleasure in the sun or wind, to effect energy.

Economic historians take it analyzed alternative energies, besides they analyze these transitions as critical moment leading to brimming economic enhancement. In the late medieval period, to provide an example, coal supplanted lumber as the major form of electricity, as European people were running out of wood because they had become accordingly good at deforestation.

An additional illustration is with petroleum, which was made since an preference to whale oil once the exhaustion of whale stocks during the middle nineteenth century prompted whale oil fees to escalate. Some time past, whale oil existed as the a prominent sort of fuel besides lubrication for searing lamps. This new kind of oil, first capitalized on in Pennsylvania in 1859, ultimately supplanted whale oil.

Sun besides wind energy are 2 fresh illustrations of powers that could before long improvised for regular grizzled fuels, now our finite source of fossil fuels decline and as prices continuously escalate. The great charge related to both wind and sun energy is that they're both substantially cheaper and easier to get care than they were forty second childhood ago. Nowadays, you can find a great number of firms studying cutting edge enhancements and applications of the sun also wind's force, it's basically a spring of occasion before experiencing more chock-full consumption.

One more instance of a naturally occurring sustainable working is piezoelectricity, which is a variety of electrical power that is produced by designful materials delight in quartz, drive or topaz that generate an electric current whenever their shining composition is misshaped. An understanding would be a piezoelectric floor tile, situated below a populated street bifurcation, that creates electric power as people on the streets transmigration across it.

There are numerous unique examples of piezoelectricity, such as the piezo motor, which power be designed unduly slight but could move approximately a thousand times its original weight. Piezoelectric products are utilized weight various colloquial systems flip over healthcare items, dslr cameras and stove lights, but there is a considerable amount of freedom for live on connections addition to commonplace engagement.

Day, Night, and Shadows

Everyday we see the sun go up in the morning, and then it goes down at night. When the sun goes down, the moon goes up. While we are sleeping, the moon goes down, and the sun goes up. Both the sun and moon give off light, and this light can be used to make shadows. The simple and fun science of day and night helps us tell when it's time to wake up and go to school and when it's time to go to bed and sleep. Let's first make sure we understand each of the words well.

Day

Day or daytime is when we can see the sun. The sun rises over the line we see in the east. This line is called the horizon. The goes up and moves across the sky and ends up on the other side of the horizon line, called the west. The time when we can see the sun, or when the sun is moving from east to west is called daytime.

Night

Night or nighttime is when we cannot see the sun. Instead of the sun we can see the moon and stars, but we don't see these every night. Just like the sun, we see the moon come up from one side of the sky and move to the other side. The time when we can see the moon or starts is called nighttime.

(But I'm sure you already knew all that! Did you know, though that it's really the earth that moves?!)

The Moving Earth

Even though we can see the sun and moon move across the sky, they aren't really moving, it's the earth that moves! The earth spins or turns around by itself and as a result it faces different parts of it towards the sun as it spins. This turning around is what makes day and night. If you stand in front of a lamp, the light shines on your face. You can call this daytime. Now turn slowly towards your left and you will see that the light is fading away. When there is no more light on your face, you call this nighttime. So the light never moved, you did, and that's the same thing the earth does!

Shadows

A shadow is what forms when something gets in the way of light. The thing that gets in the way of the light makes a dark shape where the light should be shining on. When we make shadow puppets with our hands, we put our hands in front of the light in order to block some of the light to make the puppet.

We can use shadows to tell the time or to determine how bright it is outside. When it's very bright, our shadows are very dark. When it isn't too bright, our shadows are lighter. Depending on where the sun is, we will have a different looking shadow. It can look long or short, or lean towards one side. The science project in the project section shows us how this happens when day turns to night!

Everyday we see the sun go up in the morning, and then it goes down at night. When the sun goes down, the moon goes up. While we are sleeping, the moon goes down, and the sun goes up. Both the sun and moon give off light, and this light can be used to make shadows. The simple and fun science of day and night helps us tell when it's time to wake up and go to school and when it's time to go to bed and sleep. Let's first make sure we understand each of the words well.

Day

Day or daytime is when we can see the sun. The sun rises over the line we see in the east. This line is called the horizon. The goes up and moves across the sky and ends up on the other side of the horizon line, called the west. The time when we can see the sun, or when the sun is moving from east to west is called daytime.

Night

Night or nighttime is when we cannot see the sun. Instead of the sun we can see the moon and stars, but we don't see these every night. Just like the sun, we see the moon come up from one side of the sky and move to the other side. The time when we can see the moon or starts is called nighttime.

(But I'm sure you already knew all that! Did you know, though that it's really the earth that moves?!)

The Moving Earth

Even though we can see the sun and moon move across the sky, they aren't really moving, it's the earth that moves! The earth spins or turns around by itself and as a result it faces different parts of it towards the sun as it spins. This turning around is what makes day and night. If you stand in front of a lamp, the light shines on your face. You can call this daytime. Now turn slowly towards your left and you will see that the light is fading away. When there is no more light on your face, you call this nighttime. So the light never moved, you did, and that's the same thing the earth does!

Shadows

A shadow is what forms when something gets in the way of light. The thing that gets in the way of the light makes a dark shape where the light should be shining on. When we make shadow puppets with our hands, we put our hands in front of the light in order to block some of the light to make the puppet.

We can use shadows to tell the time or to determine how bright it is outside. When it's very bright, our shadows are very dark. When it isn't too bright, our shadows are lighter. Depending on where the sun is, we will have a different looking shadow. It can look long or short, or lean towards one side. The science project in the project section shows us how this happens when day turns to night!

Darwin, A View

As the principal of a Christian School within the independent sector, I am often contacted by the media. One of the issues that regularly crops up is their request for me to become involved in the ongoing debate about evolution and creation. Unsurprisingly, even Richard Dawkins spent time grilling us on our views for his documentary "The Root of All Evil". During the times when myself and the school are not sought out by the media, we rarely think about Darwin or evolution.

From what I know of Darwin he was a good family man, doing interesting research; however what is very important to me is what people really think about who they are. We are still in the realms of theory as to how and why. Today some people tend to be more dogmatic and totally convinced, as is Richard Dawkins, when maybe we ought not to be so proud of our certainties.

My opinion is if the Bible is correct, (and I believe it to be so) then our thoughts are the things that mould us and make us, as we think in our hearts so we are - Proverbs 23:7 - our thinking is that which generates the way we act. So, if we think that the universe is some mechanical process, then we tend to treat people like a machine; if we think that we are just an animal then, we tend to treat each other like animals.

It seems to me that Hitler believed that Darwin's view of how life worked was correct and much more than theory. From this belief he decided, "well then, let me speed up the process and create an evolutionary jump and make the master race." We know the results!

If, on the other hand, we believe that there is a mind behind our universe, and that we are created in the image of God then surely that thinking would encourage us to treat one another with dignity and respect. Richard Dawkins' argument with me on TV was that he was more honourable than me as he did not need a God to stop him from pillaging and raping; his implication being that I did! My problem with that argument is that one person cannot negate what is going on in the world; the great swathes of destruction and man's inhumanity to man. Our thinking that we can play God, and our devaluation of each other, is a daily fact whatever Mr. Dawkins may think.

So what do I think of Darwin? Interesting theories; but believing them to be totally correct without criticism and debate will lead to dangerous thought.

As the principal of a Christian School within the independent sector, I am often contacted by the media. One of the issues that regularly crops up is their request for me to become involved in the ongoing debate about evolution and creation. Unsurprisingly, even Richard Dawkins spent time grilling us on our views for his documentary "The Root of All Evil". During the times when myself and the school are not sought out by the media, we rarely think about Darwin or evolution.

From what I know of Darwin he was a good family man, doing interesting research; however what is very important to me is what people really think about who they are. We are still in the realms of theory as to how and why. Today some people tend to be more dogmatic and totally convinced, as is Richard Dawkins, when maybe we ought not to be so proud of our certainties.

My opinion is if the Bible is correct, (and I believe it to be so) then our thoughts are the things that mould us and make us, as we think in our hearts so we are - Proverbs 23:7 - our thinking is that which generates the way we act. So, if we think that the universe is some mechanical process, then we tend to treat people like a machine; if we think that we are just an animal then, we tend to treat each other like animals.

It seems to me that Hitler believed that Darwin's view of how life worked was correct and much more than theory. From this belief he decided, "well then, let me speed up the process and create an evolutionary jump and make the master race." We know the results!

If, on the other hand, we believe that there is a mind behind our universe, and that we are created in the image of God then surely that thinking would encourage us to treat one another with dignity and respect. Richard Dawkins' argument with me on TV was that he was more honourable than me as he did not need a God to stop him from pillaging and raping; his implication being that I did! My problem with that argument is that one person cannot negate what is going on in the world; the great swathes of destruction and man's inhumanity to man. Our thinking that we can play God, and our devaluation of each other, is a daily fact whatever Mr. Dawkins may think.

So what do I think of Darwin? Interesting theories; but believing them to be totally correct without criticism and debate will lead to dangerous thought.

Chemistry 101

Welcome to Chemistry 101, an introduction to Chemistry. Chemistry 101 will touch on the important topics of first year chemistry and beyond. These Chemistry 101 topics that will be discussed below are matter, atoms, molecules, states of matter, solutions, acids and bases, oxidation-reduction reactions, rates of reactions and equilibrium, thermochemistry and stoichiometry.

Chemistry 101 - Matter

Chemistry 101 begins with the introduction of matter, as chemistry is the study of matter. The atomic theory teaches that matter is made up of pure substances known as atoms and molecules. Atoms are single elemental particles, such as gold, silver and potassium. Molecules are chemical combinations of two or more atoms, such as water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Matter may also be composed of mixtures of substances, such as a glass of orange juice. A glass of juice is a mixture of many different atoms and compounds, which are NOT chemically combined. Because they are not chemically combined, they can be separated by physical means. For instance, water a pure substance, can be removed from orange juice, which is what juice manufacturers do to make concentrate.

Chemistry 101 - Atoms

Chemistry 101 introduces the concept of atoms as the basic units of matter. Atoms are not the smallest units of matter, however. Rather, atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are housed in the nucleus of an atom, and electrons, which surround the nucleus. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons possess no charge. Atoms differ from one another because of the number of protons present in their nuclei. For instance, atoms with only one proton in the nucleus are all hydrogen atoms. Atoms with 12 protons in the nucleus are all carbon atoms. Atoms are neutral particles, which mean they do not carry a charge. Therefore, atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. As stated previously, an atom's identity is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. Its chemical properties - in other words, what it reacts with - is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost energy level. Elements are made up of one type of atom. For example, a sample of the element gold is made up of far more than a trillion gold atoms. Elements are organized in a Periodic Table. They are organized in the table horizontally by an increasing number of protons and vertically, by recurring chemical properties. Elements in the same vertical column, also known as group, possess similar chemical properties.

Chemistry 101 - Molecules

Chemistry 101 defines molecules as combinations of more than one atom chemically bonded together. The type of bonds that are formed between atoms is determined by their chemical properties, which are ultimately determined by the number of electrons in their outermost energy levels. Atoms form bonds to fill their outermost energy levels with electrons. Molecules have full outermost energy levels. Noble gases, which are nonreactive gases such as helium and neon, do not form molecules because they already have full outermost energy levels. The strength of the bonds that atoms form together determines the resulting molecule's physical properties, such as state of matter - whether solid, liquid or gas - and melting and boiling points.

Chemistry 101 - States of Matter

Chemistry 101 describes the three states of matter in which atoms and molecules exist - solid, liquid and gas. Solids have tighter and more compact molecular structures than liquids, which have closer molecular structures than gases. Gas molecules exist very far apart from each other and interact as little as possible with each other. They do interact with each other, as predicted by Kinetic Molecular Theory, which says they travel in straight lines, randomly colliding with each other. Gases expand in volume with increasing heat, and decreasing pressure, and decrease in volume, with decreasing heat and increasing pressure.

Chemistry 101 - Solutions

Chemistry 101 defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that exists in a single phase, such as the liquid phase. The solute is the substance that exists in the lesser amount, and the solvent in the greater amount. For example, in a solution of salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent. Solutions in which water is the solvent are known as aqueous solutions. Solutions follow the saying, "like dissolves like," meaning that solutes and solvents with similar polarity - positive and negative regions - will dissolve in each other, whereas solutes and solvents in which one is polar and one is nonpolar will NOT dissolve in each other. Oil and water don't mix because oil is nonpolar, lacking positive and negative regions, and water is polar.

Chemistry 101 - Chemical Reactions

Chemistry 101 not only describes atoms and molecules, but most importantly, the reactions they undergo. Chemical reactions are interactions between pure substances - either atoms or molecules -- that result in the rearranging of atoms and molecules. It is important to note that atoms are never lost in chemical reactions. They are only rearranged. An example of a chemical reaction is the rusting of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen in the air to produce iron oxide.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Notice that there are 4 atoms of pure solid iron on the reactant (left) side of the equation ("s" stands for solid). These 4 iron atoms react with 3 oxygen gas molecules (oxygen exists in nature as two oxygen atoms bonded together) to form 2 molecules of Iron (III) oxide. The same number of iron and oxygen atoms exists on both sides of the equation, but they are now rearranged. Rearranging atoms to make new molecules completely changes their properties. Whereas iron is a metal, iron (III) oxide is a reddish powdery substance.

Chemistry 101 - Acids and Bases

In Chemistry 101, acids are defined as molecules that contribute hydrogen ions to solution. A hydrogen ion is a hydrogen atom that has lost its only electron. The stronger an acid the more hydrogen ions are donated to solution. The measure of hydrogen ion concentration is known as pH. pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The smaller the pH, the MORE hydrogen ions in solution. The larger the pH, the fewer hydrogen ions that exist in solution. Bases are molecules that take up hydrogen ions from solution. Equal amounts of equally strong acids and bases neutralize each other, producing water and a salt.

Chemistry 101 - Oxidation - Reduction Reactions

Chemistry 101 defines oxidation - reduction reactions as chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons. In the oxidation of iron reaction we studied previously, solid iron metal was oxidized, which means it lost electrons and oxygen was reduced, meaning it gained the electrons that iron lost.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Electricity is the movement of electrons from higher concentration to lower concentration. Since there is a movement of electrons from one substance to another in oxidation-reduction reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions are the basis of batteries. The oxidation and reduction reactions are separated from each other, and the transfer of electrons from the oxidation to the reduction are pushed along a wire, or some other external pathway In this way, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. Oxidation-reduction reactions can be reversed with the application of an external energy source in order to plate metals, such as copper-plating and gold-plating.

Chemistry 101 - Thermochemistry

Chemistry 101 teaches thermochemistry, which describes the heat of reactions. In chemical reactions, energy is neither created nor destroyed. This is known as the law of conservation of energy. Some chemical reactions require a net input of energy, known as endothermic reactions. Others produce a net output of energy, known as exothermic reactions. Chemical cold and hot packs you buy in the pharmacy are examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions, respectively. Adding heat to a substance increases its energy. The particles move more with this added energy, which is measured as temperature. Sometimes, this heat is used to change the phase or state of a substance, such as melting ice. Different substances have different specific heats, meaning that they require different amounts of energy to raise their temperature. For example, water has a high specific heat. It takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of water. This is why bodies of water tend to maintain their temperature. Metals have a low specific heat, meaning it doesn't take much energy to raise their temperature. I would much rather put my hand in a cup of water that was on the stove for 5 minutes than a metal object that was on the same stove.

Chemistry 101 - Rates of Reaction and Equilibrium

Chemistry 101 also teaches reaction rates and equilibrium. Reaction rate is a measure of the change in concentration of reactants (left side of the balanced chemical equation) or change in concentration of products (right side of the balanced chemical equation) over time. Reaction rate can be increased by increasing the concentration of reactants, increasing the temperature, surface area of the reactants and the addition of a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of a reaction, without being used up in the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Some chemical reactions are reversible. In that case, when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, the reaction is said to be in equilibrium. A system in equilibrium resists changes to its equilibrium state. This is known as Le Chatelier's Principle. For example, if more reactants are added, the system will move to create more products. If more heat is added, the system will move to reduce the amount of heat.

Chemistry 101 - Stoichiometry

A study of Chemistry 101 is not complete without a discussion of stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is the quantitative basis of chemistry. Chemical reactions occur on the atomic level, but we measure them on the macroscopic level, assigning the value of 1 mole to any 6.02 x 1023 particles of a pure substance. A mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms and weighs 12 g. Whereas we cannot measure atoms because we cannot see them, we can measure 12 g of carbon.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O

In the reaction above, 1 molecule of glucose reacts with 6 molecules of oxygen to produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water. Since we cannot see molecules, we can interpret this reaction in terms of moles. Remember that a mole is equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles. In this case, 1 mole of glucose reacts with 6 moles of oxygen to produce 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water. We can obtain the weight of a mole of any atom from the periodic table.

Glucose, C6H12O6, consists of 6 moles of carbon, each weighing 12 g, 12 moles of hydrogen, each weight 1 gram and 6 moles of oxygen, each weighing 16 grams. 1 mole of glucose weighs 180 grams. By mixing 180 grams of glucose with 6 moles of O2, or 6 x 2 x 16 grams = 192 grams of oxygen, we will generate 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water.
Chemistry is a quantitative science which requires dedicated study and practice. It is a worthwhile endeavor, as matter is the basis of all living and non-living things. Visit http://chemin10.com to learn Chemistry 101, first-year chemistry, in easy-to-learn 10 minute videos, with quizzes, forum and live online tutoring. Learn Chemistry 101 with Chem in 10.

Welcome to Chemistry 101, an introduction to Chemistry. Chemistry 101 will touch on the important topics of first year chemistry and beyond. These Chemistry 101 topics that will be discussed below are matter, atoms, molecules, states of matter, solutions, acids and bases, oxidation-reduction reactions, rates of reactions and equilibrium, thermochemistry and stoichiometry.

Chemistry 101 - Matter

Chemistry 101 begins with the introduction of matter, as chemistry is the study of matter. The atomic theory teaches that matter is made up of pure substances known as atoms and molecules. Atoms are single elemental particles, such as gold, silver and potassium. Molecules are chemical combinations of two or more atoms, such as water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Matter may also be composed of mixtures of substances, such as a glass of orange juice. A glass of juice is a mixture of many different atoms and compounds, which are NOT chemically combined. Because they are not chemically combined, they can be separated by physical means. For instance, water a pure substance, can be removed from orange juice, which is what juice manufacturers do to make concentrate.

Chemistry 101 - Atoms

Chemistry 101 introduces the concept of atoms as the basic units of matter. Atoms are not the smallest units of matter, however. Rather, atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are housed in the nucleus of an atom, and electrons, which surround the nucleus. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons possess no charge. Atoms differ from one another because of the number of protons present in their nuclei. For instance, atoms with only one proton in the nucleus are all hydrogen atoms. Atoms with 12 protons in the nucleus are all carbon atoms. Atoms are neutral particles, which mean they do not carry a charge. Therefore, atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. As stated previously, an atom's identity is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. Its chemical properties - in other words, what it reacts with - is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost energy level. Elements are made up of one type of atom. For example, a sample of the element gold is made up of far more than a trillion gold atoms. Elements are organized in a Periodic Table. They are organized in the table horizontally by an increasing number of protons and vertically, by recurring chemical properties. Elements in the same vertical column, also known as group, possess similar chemical properties.

Chemistry 101 - Molecules

Chemistry 101 defines molecules as combinations of more than one atom chemically bonded together. The type of bonds that are formed between atoms is determined by their chemical properties, which are ultimately determined by the number of electrons in their outermost energy levels. Atoms form bonds to fill their outermost energy levels with electrons. Molecules have full outermost energy levels. Noble gases, which are nonreactive gases such as helium and neon, do not form molecules because they already have full outermost energy levels. The strength of the bonds that atoms form together determines the resulting molecule's physical properties, such as state of matter - whether solid, liquid or gas - and melting and boiling points.

Chemistry 101 - States of Matter

Chemistry 101 describes the three states of matter in which atoms and molecules exist - solid, liquid and gas. Solids have tighter and more compact molecular structures than liquids, which have closer molecular structures than gases. Gas molecules exist very far apart from each other and interact as little as possible with each other. They do interact with each other, as predicted by Kinetic Molecular Theory, which says they travel in straight lines, randomly colliding with each other. Gases expand in volume with increasing heat, and decreasing pressure, and decrease in volume, with decreasing heat and increasing pressure.

Chemistry 101 - Solutions

Chemistry 101 defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that exists in a single phase, such as the liquid phase. The solute is the substance that exists in the lesser amount, and the solvent in the greater amount. For example, in a solution of salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent. Solutions in which water is the solvent are known as aqueous solutions. Solutions follow the saying, "like dissolves like," meaning that solutes and solvents with similar polarity - positive and negative regions - will dissolve in each other, whereas solutes and solvents in which one is polar and one is nonpolar will NOT dissolve in each other. Oil and water don't mix because oil is nonpolar, lacking positive and negative regions, and water is polar.

Chemistry 101 - Chemical Reactions

Chemistry 101 not only describes atoms and molecules, but most importantly, the reactions they undergo. Chemical reactions are interactions between pure substances - either atoms or molecules -- that result in the rearranging of atoms and molecules. It is important to note that atoms are never lost in chemical reactions. They are only rearranged. An example of a chemical reaction is the rusting of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen in the air to produce iron oxide.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Notice that there are 4 atoms of pure solid iron on the reactant (left) side of the equation ("s" stands for solid). These 4 iron atoms react with 3 oxygen gas molecules (oxygen exists in nature as two oxygen atoms bonded together) to form 2 molecules of Iron (III) oxide. The same number of iron and oxygen atoms exists on both sides of the equation, but they are now rearranged. Rearranging atoms to make new molecules completely changes their properties. Whereas iron is a metal, iron (III) oxide is a reddish powdery substance.

Chemistry 101 - Acids and Bases

In Chemistry 101, acids are defined as molecules that contribute hydrogen ions to solution. A hydrogen ion is a hydrogen atom that has lost its only electron. The stronger an acid the more hydrogen ions are donated to solution. The measure of hydrogen ion concentration is known as pH. pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The smaller the pH, the MORE hydrogen ions in solution. The larger the pH, the fewer hydrogen ions that exist in solution. Bases are molecules that take up hydrogen ions from solution. Equal amounts of equally strong acids and bases neutralize each other, producing water and a salt.

Chemistry 101 - Oxidation - Reduction Reactions

Chemistry 101 defines oxidation - reduction reactions as chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons. In the oxidation of iron reaction we studied previously, solid iron metal was oxidized, which means it lost electrons and oxygen was reduced, meaning it gained the electrons that iron lost.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) --> 2Fe2O3(s)

Electricity is the movement of electrons from higher concentration to lower concentration. Since there is a movement of electrons from one substance to another in oxidation-reduction reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions are the basis of batteries. The oxidation and reduction reactions are separated from each other, and the transfer of electrons from the oxidation to the reduction are pushed along a wire, or some other external pathway In this way, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. Oxidation-reduction reactions can be reversed with the application of an external energy source in order to plate metals, such as copper-plating and gold-plating.

Chemistry 101 - Thermochemistry

Chemistry 101 teaches thermochemistry, which describes the heat of reactions. In chemical reactions, energy is neither created nor destroyed. This is known as the law of conservation of energy. Some chemical reactions require a net input of energy, known as endothermic reactions. Others produce a net output of energy, known as exothermic reactions. Chemical cold and hot packs you buy in the pharmacy are examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions, respectively. Adding heat to a substance increases its energy. The particles move more with this added energy, which is measured as temperature. Sometimes, this heat is used to change the phase or state of a substance, such as melting ice. Different substances have different specific heats, meaning that they require different amounts of energy to raise their temperature. For example, water has a high specific heat. It takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of water. This is why bodies of water tend to maintain their temperature. Metals have a low specific heat, meaning it doesn't take much energy to raise their temperature. I would much rather put my hand in a cup of water that was on the stove for 5 minutes than a metal object that was on the same stove.

Chemistry 101 - Rates of Reaction and Equilibrium

Chemistry 101 also teaches reaction rates and equilibrium. Reaction rate is a measure of the change in concentration of reactants (left side of the balanced chemical equation) or change in concentration of products (right side of the balanced chemical equation) over time. Reaction rate can be increased by increasing the concentration of reactants, increasing the temperature, surface area of the reactants and the addition of a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of a reaction, without being used up in the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Some chemical reactions are reversible. In that case, when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, the reaction is said to be in equilibrium. A system in equilibrium resists changes to its equilibrium state. This is known as Le Chatelier's Principle. For example, if more reactants are added, the system will move to create more products. If more heat is added, the system will move to reduce the amount of heat.

Chemistry 101 - Stoichiometry

A study of Chemistry 101 is not complete without a discussion of stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is the quantitative basis of chemistry. Chemical reactions occur on the atomic level, but we measure them on the macroscopic level, assigning the value of 1 mole to any 6.02 x 1023 particles of a pure substance. A mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms and weighs 12 g. Whereas we cannot measure atoms because we cannot see them, we can measure 12 g of carbon.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O

In the reaction above, 1 molecule of glucose reacts with 6 molecules of oxygen to produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water. Since we cannot see molecules, we can interpret this reaction in terms of moles. Remember that a mole is equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles. In this case, 1 mole of glucose reacts with 6 moles of oxygen to produce 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water. We can obtain the weight of a mole of any atom from the periodic table.

Glucose, C6H12O6, consists of 6 moles of carbon, each weighing 12 g, 12 moles of hydrogen, each weight 1 gram and 6 moles of oxygen, each weighing 16 grams. 1 mole of glucose weighs 180 grams. By mixing 180 grams of glucose with 6 moles of O2, or 6 x 2 x 16 grams = 192 grams of oxygen, we will generate 6 moles of each carbon dioxide and water.
Chemistry is a quantitative science which requires dedicated study and practice. It is a worthwhile endeavor, as matter is the basis of all living and non-living things. Visit http://chemin10.com to learn Chemistry 101, first-year chemistry, in easy-to-learn 10 minute videos, with quizzes, forum and live online tutoring. Learn Chemistry 101 with Chem in 10.

Can Sound Shatter Glass

An opera singer belting out a note so loud it smashes a glass has long been a comedic image!

You might remember that in 1982 Ella Fitzgerald appeared in a TV ad for Memorex where she was shown breaking a glass with her incredible voice. Not to mention opera singer Caruso who claimed to achieved the feat with his voice; a rumour his wife soon quashed after his death!

Or what about the scene in 'Harry Potter' when the Fat Lady tries to break a glass with her operatic singing voice? When she fails to do so, she shatters the glass by hitting it off her picture frame - but tries to pass it off as a product of her talent!

Either she didn't know the secrets behind resonance breaking glass or she just wasn't a very good singer!

So: can it really be done? Can sound shatter glass?

The short answer is yes. However, the conditions are very specific and must be carried out properly. Simply place a pint glass next to your speakers, turn the music up loud and most likely the glass isn't going to break.

To break glass with sound the sound will have to match the natural frequency of a thin wine glass.

And to find the natural frequency (called resonance) - rub your finger round the rim until you discern a single note.

This is how Benjamin Franklin first recognised the tones that he went on to play after inventing his own glass armonica.

Once you know the resonance of the glass, you can belt out that note at 100 decibels. The glass will start to vibrate.

The shattering will happen when the glass can no longer withstand the frequency channelled by strong vibrations.

By the way research has shown that a box of good quality glasses are much less likely to break than a cheaper wine glass. A glass with a wine glass, however, tiny, will make the chances of smashing the glass far greater.

What about musical instruments? Professional trumpeter Nick tuned his note to the natural resonance of the glass and played repeatedly until the glass broke. Meanwhile, Salford University claim to have broken glass using a clarinet. Logic would suggest that in conjunction with a correctly tuned amp a guitar should be able to break glass too. However, no such feat has been recorded yet!

Therefore: the power of sound can shatter glass and now you know exactly how!

An opera singer belting out a note so loud it smashes a glass has long been a comedic image!

You might remember that in 1982 Ella Fitzgerald appeared in a TV ad for Memorex where she was shown breaking a glass with her incredible voice. Not to mention opera singer Caruso who claimed to achieved the feat with his voice; a rumour his wife soon quashed after his death!

Or what about the scene in 'Harry Potter' when the Fat Lady tries to break a glass with her operatic singing voice? When she fails to do so, she shatters the glass by hitting it off her picture frame - but tries to pass it off as a product of her talent!

Either she didn't know the secrets behind resonance breaking glass or she just wasn't a very good singer!

So: can it really be done? Can sound shatter glass?

The short answer is yes. However, the conditions are very specific and must be carried out properly. Simply place a pint glass next to your speakers, turn the music up loud and most likely the glass isn't going to break.

To break glass with sound the sound will have to match the natural frequency of a thin wine glass.

And to find the natural frequency (called resonance) - rub your finger round the rim until you discern a single note.

This is how Benjamin Franklin first recognised the tones that he went on to play after inventing his own glass armonica.

Once you know the resonance of the glass, you can belt out that note at 100 decibels. The glass will start to vibrate.

The shattering will happen when the glass can no longer withstand the frequency channelled by strong vibrations.

By the way research has shown that a box of good quality glasses are much less likely to break than a cheaper wine glass. A glass with a wine glass, however, tiny, will make the chances of smashing the glass far greater.

What about musical instruments? Professional trumpeter Nick tuned his note to the natural resonance of the glass and played repeatedly until the glass broke. Meanwhile, Salford University claim to have broken glass using a clarinet. Logic would suggest that in conjunction with a correctly tuned amp a guitar should be able to break glass too. However, no such feat has been recorded yet!

Therefore: the power of sound can shatter glass and now you know exactly how!

As Arctic Night Falls, Sea Ice Holds Its Ground

The sun has just set at the top of the world, and the weather in that neck of the woods is about as lousy as you would expect. The temperature dropped to 4 degrees Fahrenheit earlier this week at the world's northernmost outpost, Alert, in Canada's Nunavut territory.

Another Arctic winter is coming.

Nevertheless, the high Arctic is still the epicenter of global climate change, and the scientific and policy controversies that surround the topic. Much of the region has just experienced another abnormally warm summer. Springtime snowpack was extremely low across Siberia, which set the stage for thawing breezes to blow offshore toward the Arctic Ocean's ice pack. This followed a freakishly warm winter - part of last winter's strong La Nina event - over Greenland and eastern Canada, which left that typically frigid locale almost devoid of sea ice last season.

The result was that the Arctic ice pack was smaller than average when the melt season started, and it declined rapidly when warm winds blew over it from Siberia. For much of the season, the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) reported that the ice pack was at the smallest seasonal extent since regular satellite observations became available in 1979.

But the sea ice extent did not ultimately fall quite as low as the record set on Sept. 16, 2007. The NSIDC released preliminary figures this week showing that the ice pack reached its minimum on Sept. 9 at 1.67 million square miles, compared to 2007's low of 1.61 million square miles. (1) After touching its low for the year, the ice pack has made an unusually sharp turn upward, though it is not clear whether this is a result of early cold weather or of winds that can simply disperse the ice over a larger area of ocean.

These are the bare facts. How we interpret them depends largely on the perspectives and biases we bring to the task.

Most, though not all, of the climate science community is convinced that the reduction in Arctic sea ice, like many other phenomena such as the retreat of freshwater glaciers, is mainly the product of human-induced climate change. Reflecting this viewpoint, the NSIDC itself said this year's low point "continues the decadal trend of rapidly decreasing summer sea ice."

The NSIDC uses the first 22 seasons of satellite data, from 1979 through 2000, as its baseline for measuring departures from historic ice levels. During that period, the average minimum ice extent was 2.59 million square miles. The 2007 record low was 38 percent below this level - the continuation of a trend that was present even in the last decades of the 20th century, and which accelerated in the first years of the 21st.

But can we say that this year's low marks a further progression of this trend? If we were just graphing the two data points - the minimum ice extent for 2007 and 2011 - we would observe a slight rise. The rise itself is not significant, but it calls into question whether this year's data really represents a continuation of "rapidly decreasing" summer ice. (The NSIDC notes that other researchers, using other data sources that were not available during the baseline period, believe this year's ice extent or volume was lower than in 2007, but there is no way to quantify long-term trends in those data sets.)

The trend line is equally unclear if we consider the results of the intervening years. In 2008, the sea ice recovered somewhat from its low point. It recovered further, and more substantially, in 2009. Then the ice pack shrank last summer back to 1.78 million square miles, a tad larger than 2008. I think the fairest way to describe the figures is that, after a period of rapid shrinkage earlier in the decade, the ice pack's summer minimum size has fluctuated over the past four years.

This is not entirely unexpected. Researchers for the Study of Environmental Arctic Change wrote in 2008 that ice levels might fluctuate for several years until, as happened in the summer of 2007, a dramatic ice loss in a single year brings the pack to a new and lower plateau. The process would repeat itself as more time passed. (2) Of course, if you were skeptical of the scare headlines from several summers ago that predicted the imminent demise of the ice pack, you would not be surprised to find that the floating ice has been holding its ground.

I follow developments in the Arctic for several reasons. First, I find the science interesting and the region fascinating. Second, the far northern latitudes have always been most sensitive to dramatic swings in climate, going back in recorded time to the Viking era and extending far earlier in prehistory. But mostly, I follow this because climate trends and what to do about them present one of the most important and difficult policy questions of our lifetime, one that may extend well into the adulthoods of our children and grandchildren.

Climate has always changed, often radically and sometimes suddenly. Not that long ago, geologically speaking, the great Laurentide ice sheet covered the sites of modern New York City and Chicago; a remnant persists on Canada's Baffin Island today. Less than 13,000 years ago, as the glaciers generally retreated, a 1,300-year period known as the Younger Dryas (also called "the Big Freeze") sent temperatures in the middle latitudes plummeting; scientists believe the change occurred in less than a decade. More recently, there was the warm period during which Iceland and Greenland were settled, the Little Ice Age that coincided with the Renaissance, and the modern period of warming.

I don't doubt that climate changes, and I don't doubt that human activity is a factor, given the changes in our atmosphere's composition and in land use patterns. But I question our ability to accurately model future climate trends when we have such an imperfect understanding of historical climate shifts. And I especially doubt our political and scientific readiness to respond to climate change in ways that also recognize that the human population is 7 billion and growing and that all those people need adequate food, clean water, suitable shelter, and ways to make a living, now and in the future.

So I keep an eye each summer on the news from the far north. If the Arctic ice pack is really disappearing, it's going to have to shrink further than it already has. The past four years have not provided much evidence either way.

Sources:

1) National Snow and Ice Data Center, "Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis"

2) Study of Environmental Arctic Change, "2008 Outlook - Summary Report"

The sun has just set at the top of the world, and the weather in that neck of the woods is about as lousy as you would expect. The temperature dropped to 4 degrees Fahrenheit earlier this week at the world's northernmost outpost, Alert, in Canada's Nunavut territory.

Another Arctic winter is coming.

Nevertheless, the high Arctic is still the epicenter of global climate change, and the scientific and policy controversies that surround the topic. Much of the region has just experienced another abnormally warm summer. Springtime snowpack was extremely low across Siberia, which set the stage for thawing breezes to blow offshore toward the Arctic Ocean's ice pack. This followed a freakishly warm winter - part of last winter's strong La Nina event - over Greenland and eastern Canada, which left that typically frigid locale almost devoid of sea ice last season.

The result was that the Arctic ice pack was smaller than average when the melt season started, and it declined rapidly when warm winds blew over it from Siberia. For much of the season, the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) reported that the ice pack was at the smallest seasonal extent since regular satellite observations became available in 1979.

But the sea ice extent did not ultimately fall quite as low as the record set on Sept. 16, 2007. The NSIDC released preliminary figures this week showing that the ice pack reached its minimum on Sept. 9 at 1.67 million square miles, compared to 2007's low of 1.61 million square miles. (1) After touching its low for the year, the ice pack has made an unusually sharp turn upward, though it is not clear whether this is a result of early cold weather or of winds that can simply disperse the ice over a larger area of ocean.

These are the bare facts. How we interpret them depends largely on the perspectives and biases we bring to the task.

Most, though not all, of the climate science community is convinced that the reduction in Arctic sea ice, like many other phenomena such as the retreat of freshwater glaciers, is mainly the product of human-induced climate change. Reflecting this viewpoint, the NSIDC itself said this year's low point "continues the decadal trend of rapidly decreasing summer sea ice."

The NSIDC uses the first 22 seasons of satellite data, from 1979 through 2000, as its baseline for measuring departures from historic ice levels. During that period, the average minimum ice extent was 2.59 million square miles. The 2007 record low was 38 percent below this level - the continuation of a trend that was present even in the last decades of the 20th century, and which accelerated in the first years of the 21st.

But can we say that this year's low marks a further progression of this trend? If we were just graphing the two data points - the minimum ice extent for 2007 and 2011 - we would observe a slight rise. The rise itself is not significant, but it calls into question whether this year's data really represents a continuation of "rapidly decreasing" summer ice. (The NSIDC notes that other researchers, using other data sources that were not available during the baseline period, believe this year's ice extent or volume was lower than in 2007, but there is no way to quantify long-term trends in those data sets.)

The trend line is equally unclear if we consider the results of the intervening years. In 2008, the sea ice recovered somewhat from its low point. It recovered further, and more substantially, in 2009. Then the ice pack shrank last summer back to 1.78 million square miles, a tad larger than 2008. I think the fairest way to describe the figures is that, after a period of rapid shrinkage earlier in the decade, the ice pack's summer minimum size has fluctuated over the past four years.

This is not entirely unexpected. Researchers for the Study of Environmental Arctic Change wrote in 2008 that ice levels might fluctuate for several years until, as happened in the summer of 2007, a dramatic ice loss in a single year brings the pack to a new and lower plateau. The process would repeat itself as more time passed. (2) Of course, if you were skeptical of the scare headlines from several summers ago that predicted the imminent demise of the ice pack, you would not be surprised to find that the floating ice has been holding its ground.

I follow developments in the Arctic for several reasons. First, I find the science interesting and the region fascinating. Second, the far northern latitudes have always been most sensitive to dramatic swings in climate, going back in recorded time to the Viking era and extending far earlier in prehistory. But mostly, I follow this because climate trends and what to do about them present one of the most important and difficult policy questions of our lifetime, one that may extend well into the adulthoods of our children and grandchildren.

Climate has always changed, often radically and sometimes suddenly. Not that long ago, geologically speaking, the great Laurentide ice sheet covered the sites of modern New York City and Chicago; a remnant persists on Canada's Baffin Island today. Less than 13,000 years ago, as the glaciers generally retreated, a 1,300-year period known as the Younger Dryas (also called "the Big Freeze") sent temperatures in the middle latitudes plummeting; scientists believe the change occurred in less than a decade. More recently, there was the warm period during which Iceland and Greenland were settled, the Little Ice Age that coincided with the Renaissance, and the modern period of warming.

I don't doubt that climate changes, and I don't doubt that human activity is a factor, given the changes in our atmosphere's composition and in land use patterns. But I question our ability to accurately model future climate trends when we have such an imperfect understanding of historical climate shifts. And I especially doubt our political and scientific readiness to respond to climate change in ways that also recognize that the human population is 7 billion and growing and that all those people need adequate food, clean water, suitable shelter, and ways to make a living, now and in the future.

So I keep an eye each summer on the news from the far north. If the Arctic ice pack is really disappearing, it's going to have to shrink further than it already has. The past four years have not provided much evidence either way.

Sources:

1) National Snow and Ice Data Center, "Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis"

2) Study of Environmental Arctic Change, "2008 Outlook - Summary Report"